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In their quest to understand how marine algae produce their complex toxins, researchers have identified the largest protein produce algal toxins. This discovery not only sheds light on the biological processes algae use to create these intricate toxins but also reveals new methods for chemical assembly, potentially paving the way for innovative medicines and materials.

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In their quest to understand how marine algae produce complex toxins, scientists at UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography have identified the largest protein ever recorded in biology.

How Largest Protein Produce Algal Toxins

• The protein, named PKZILLA-1, was found while researchers were studying how the algae species Prymnesium parvum generates its toxin, which is responsible for massive fish die-offs. ‘This is the Mount Everest of proteins,’ said Bradley Moore, a marine chemist with joint appointments at Scripps Oceanography and the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, and senior author of a new study detailing the findings. ‘This broadens our understanding of what biology can achieve.’
• PKZILLA-1 is 25% larger than titin, the previous record-holder, which is found in human muscles and can reach 1 micron in length (0.0001 centimeter or 0.00004 inch).
• Published in Science and funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation, the study demonstrates that this enormous protein and another large, though not record-breaking, protein—PKZILLA-2—are essential for producing prymnesin, the large, complex molecule that constitutes the algae’s toxin.
• In addition to identifying the giant proteins responsible for prymnesin production, the research also uncovered exceptionally large genes that provide Prymnesium parvum with the instructions for making these proteins.
• Identifying the genes involved in prymnesin production could improve monitoring efforts for harmful algal blooms by enabling water testing to detect the genes rather than the toxins themselves.
• The discovery of PKZILLA-1 and PKZILLA-2 also reveals the algae’s complex cellular process for building these toxins, which have unique and intricate chemical structures. Understanding how these toxins are produced could benefit scientists seeking to synthesize new compounds for medical or industrial use.
• Prymnesium parvum, also known as golden algae, is a single-celled aquatic organism found worldwide in both freshwater and saltwater. Blooms of golden algae are associated with fish die-offs due to the prymnesin toxin, which damages the gills of fish and other aquatic animals.
• In 2022, a golden algae bloom caused the deaths of 500-1,000 tons of fish in the Oder River, which borders Poland and Germany.
• When the researchers completed the assembly of the PKZILLA proteins, they were astonished by their size. The PKZILLA-1 protein has a record-breaking mass of 4.7 megadaltons, while PKZILLA-2 is also very large at 3.2 megadaltons.
• Titin, the previous record-holder, can be up to 3.7 megadaltons—about 90 times larger than a typical protein. After additional tests confirmed that golden algae actually produce these giant proteins in nature, the team set out to determine if the proteins were involved in the production of the prymnesin toxin.
• The PKZILLA proteins are enzymes, meaning they initiate chemical reactions, and the team painstakingly mapped out the 239 chemical reactions driven by the two enzymes using pens and notepads.

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Injury dressings in first-aid Kits can identify shark species after bite incidents -this study published in the journal Forensic Science International: Genetics included researchers from Flinders University. It is based on three separate shark incidents where samples were collected from surf skis and a surfboard.

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How Injury Dressings in First-Aid Kits Can Identify Shark Species After Bite Incidents?

• Using PCR testing, researchers demonstrated that medical gauze could effectively collect organic tissue and DNA samples from shark bites. The team successfully identified the shark species responsible for each bite across three incidents in Australia and South Africa, including one instance over a month after the incident.
• The researchers also compared the effectiveness of ordinary gauze to specialized forensic swabs used to collect genetic material from shark bite sites. Both methods were found to work well for species identification.
• Dr. Belinda Martin, the study’s lead author at Flinders University’s College of Science & Engineering, emphasized the importance of rapidly identifying shark species to guide future prevention measures and reduce shark incidents. She noted that eyewitness accounts are often unreliable due to trauma, making this new DNA collection approach crucial.
• “This technique is important for first responders, including surfers, lifesavers, police, and paramedics,” said Dr. Martin. “As long as humans engage in marine activities, shark-human interactions will continue, and although rare, they deeply affect victims and communities.”
• Co-author Dr. Michael Doane added that the gauze method is a simple and effective alternative to forensic-grade swabs, providing reliable species identification hours to days after a shark bite.
• He recommended that first responders use sterile gauze to collect DNA samples from the bite site as soon as possible to minimize contamination and DNA loss, increasing the likelihood of accurate species identification.

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The underground soundwaves increase soil health because healthy soils generate a symphony of subtle sounds, akin to an underground rave filled with pops and clicks, though they’re mostly inaudible to human ears. Ecologists have made special recordings that capture these complex soundscapes, using them to gauge the diversity of microscopic organisms in the soil. These tiny creatures produce sounds as they move and interact with their surroundings, and this auditory chaos offers insights into the health and variety of life beneath the surface.

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How the underground soundwaves increase soil health

Underground soundwaves refer to the vibrations and acoustic signals produced beneath the Earth’s surface. These soundwaves can be generated by various sources, including the movement and interactions of soil organisms, natural processes such as water flow, and human activities like drilling or tunneling.

• Healthy soils, though nearly inaudible to the human ear, generate a vibrant array of sounds, much like an underground rave filled with pops and clicks. Ecologists from Flinders University in Australia have recorded these chaotic soundscapes, revealing that they can serve as indicators of the diversity of microscopic organisms inhabiting the soil. These creatures create sounds as they move and interact with their environment. With 75% of the world’s soils degraded, the future of these underground ecosystems is at risk without restoration, warns microbial ecologist Dr. Jake Robinson from the Frontiers of Restoration Ecology Lab at Flinders University.
• This emerging field of research seeks to explore the vast and bustling hidden ecosystems, where nearly 60% of Earth’s species reside. Restoring and monitoring soil biodiversity has never been more critical. Although still in its infancy, ‘eco-acoustics’ is becoming a promising tool for detecting and monitoring soil biodiversity and has already been applied in Australian bushland and various ecosystems in the UK.
• The acoustic complexity and diversity are significantly higher in revegetated and remnant plots compared to cleared plots, both in situ and in sound attenuation chambers. This complexity and diversity also closely correlate with the abundance and richness of soil invertebrates.
• In the latest study, involving Flinders University expert Associate Professor Martin Breed and Professor Xin Sun from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, researchers compared acoustic monitoring results from remnant vegetation, degraded plots, and land that was revegetated 15 years ago. The study took place in the Mount Bold region of the Adelaide Hills in South Australia, using passive acoustic monitoring tools and indices to measure soil biodiversity over five days.
• A below-ground sampling device and sound attenuation chamber were employed to record soil invertebrate communities, which were also manually counted. “Our findings clearly show that the acoustic complexity and diversity of our samples are linked to the abundance of soil invertebrates, from earthworms and beetles to ants and spiders, reflecting overall soil health,” says Dr. Robinson. All living organisms produce sounds, and our initial results suggest that different soil organisms create unique sound profiles based on their activity, shape, appendages, and size. This technology offers great potential in addressing the global need for more effective soil biodiversity monitoring methods to protect our planet’s most diverse ecosystems.

A recent study has discovered that bacterial cells pass on memories to their offspring because they can ‘recall’ short-term changes in their environment and physical state. Although these changes are not written into the cell’s genetic code, the memories of them are passed on to offspring for several generations.

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How bacterial cells pass on memories to their offspring

Bacterial cells can ‘recall’ brief, temporary changes to their environment and bodies, according to a study by Northwestern University and the University of Texas-Southwestern. Despite these changes not being encoded in the cells’ DNA, they are passed down to offspring for multiple generations.

This discovery challenges long-held beliefs about how simple organisms inherit traits and opens the door to potential medical applications. For instance, scientists could bypass antibiotic resistance by altering a harmful bacterium in a way that makes its descendants more vulnerable to treatment. The study, set to be published in Science Advances on August 28, demonstrates that heritable characteristics in bacteria can be determined by the regulatory relationships among genes, not just by DNA.

Lead researcher Adilson Motter from Northwestern University explained that changes in gene regulation can imprint lasting effects in a network, which are then passed to future generations. Using E. coli as a model, the researchers showed that temporary gene deactivations could trigger lasting alterations in gene regulation that persist through generations, even without DNA changes.

The team used mathematical models to simulate gene deactivation and reactivation, and they observed that these brief disruptions could result in lasting changes, likely inherited across generations. These effects could occur due to an irreversible chain reaction within the regulatory network. The researchers plan to validate these findings in lab experiments using a modified CRISPR technique.

Motter and his team suggest that non-genetic heritability may not be limited to E. coli, as similar regulatory networks exist in other organisms. The study, ‘Irreversibility in bacterial regulatory networks,’ was funded by the National Science Foundation.

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However, achieving true sustainability in engineered wood has been challenging due to the reliance on volatile chemicals, significant energy consumption, and the production of considerable waste. New genetically modified wood can accumulate carbon and lower emissions. The researchers tackled this issue by editing a single gene in live poplar trees, allowing the trees to grow wood that is ready for engineering without the need for processing. The findings were published online on August 12, 2024, in the journal Matter.

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Researchers at the University of Maryland have genetically engineered poplar trees to produce high-performance structural wood without the need for chemicals or energy-intensive processing. Engineered wood, made from traditional wood, is often viewed as a renewable alternative to traditional building materials like steel, cement, glass, and plastic. It also has the potential to store carbon for extended periods, as it resists deterioration, making it valuable in efforts to reduce carbon emissions.

How New genetically modified wood can accumulate carbon and lower emissions

• Researchers combines genetic engineering and wood engineering to sustainably sequester and store carbon in a resilient super wood form.
• Carbon sequestration is crucial in fight against climate change, and such engineered wood could play a significant role in the future bioeconomy.
• Before wood can be treated to gain structural properties like increased strength or UV resistance, which allows it to replace steel or concrete, it must be stripped of one of its main components, lignin.
• Previously, UMD researchers developed methods to remove lignin using various chemicals, while others explored enzymes and microwave technology.
• In this new research, the team aimed to create a method that avoids chemicals, eliminates chemical waste, and reduces energy consumption.
• By using a technology called base editing to knock out a key gene known as 4CL1, the researchers were able to grow poplar trees with 12.8% lower lignin content than wild-type poplars, comparable to the results of chemical treatments used in engineered wood products.
• Researchers grew the genetically modified trees alongside unmodified ones in a greenhouse for six months.
• They observed no differences in growth rates or significant structural differences between the modified and unmodified trees.
• To test the viability of their genetically modified poplar, the team used it to produce small samples of high-strength compressed wood similar to particle board, commonly used in furniture construction.
• Compressed wood is made by soaking wood in water under a vacuum and then hot-pressing it until it is nearly one-fifth of its original thickness, which increases the density of the wood fibers.
• In natural wood, lignin helps cells maintain their structure and prevents them from being compressed. The lower lignin content of chemically treated or genetically modified wood allows the cells to compress more densely, increasing the strength of the final product.
• To evaluate the performance of their genetically modified trees, the team also produced compressed wood from natural poplar using untreated wood and wood treated with the traditional chemical process to reduce lignin content.
• Researchers found that the compressed genetically modified poplar performed on par with chemically processed natural wood. Both were denser and more than 1.5 times stronger than compressed, untreated, natural wood.
• The tensile strength of the compressed genetically modified wood was comparable to that of aluminum alloy 6061 and the chemically treated compressed wood.
• This work paves the way for producing a variety of building products in a low-cost, environmentally sustainable manner, at a scale that could play a crucial role in the fight against climate change.
• Thus researchers discovered new genetically modified wood can accumulate carbon and lower emissions.

Fur is a defining characteristic of mammals, exhibiting a wide range of colors and patterns. Thanks to a groundbreaking study, we now understand gene that controls marsupial fur color whether a marsupial’s coat is black or grey.

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How researchers discover gene that controls marsupial fur color

Researchers from New Zealand’s University of Otago analyzed brushtail possum DNA to better understand the evolution of fur color variation. Published in Royal Society Open Science, the study builds on the group’s previous work of sequencing the entire genome of the New Zealand brushtail possum.

Co-lead Dr. Donna Bond, from Otago’s Department of Anatomy, explains that this is the first time genetic variation in coat color has been studied in a natural population of marsupials.

Although marsupials, such as koalas and wombats, are quite distantly related to us researchers consider them cute and cuddly because of their fur. their research now reveals why most of them have grey fur, while some are black.

The color of a mammal’s fur is intrinsic to its identity, understanding the molecular reasons for this helps relate it to other animal systems, especially under-researched marsupials.

Possums are one of the few marsupials where natural coat color variation exists. In Australia, where they are considered a cultural treasure, many Tasmanian possums are black, while on the mainland they are grey. In New Zealand, where they were introduced in the 1850s for the fur trade and are now considered a pest, these subspecies interbreed extensively.

Due to this interbreeding, we knew we could identify the genes responsible relatively easily and provide a good model for other marsupials with coat color variation that are harder to study.

The researchers also found that the protein responsible for color variation, Agouti Signalling Protein (ASIP), is rapidly evolving in carnivorous dasyurid marsupials perhaps these are most colorful and interesting marsupials based on their fur.

Picture of Marsupials

“You have the quolls, which are spotted and can be either black or grey, and the famously striped tigers and devils with blotches from Tasmania.

“We can now connect the rapid molecular evolution of coat color genes with the role of these carnivorous marsupials as predators needing to avoid detection from prey,” he says. Coat color variation is thought to have evolved in mammals many times to fulfill certain functions.

“For a nocturnal animal like the possum, black fur may help conceal it from predators in Tasmania, but perhaps this is not needed on the Australian mainland.

“As possums continue to adapt and evolve in New Zealand, where they have few predators other than humans, it will be interesting to see whether black or grey coat color is preferred in certain locations,” Associate Professor Hore adds.

Possum skins and fur are a cultural treasure in Australia, where Southern Aboriginal tribes use their skins for cloaks, depicting images and stories on them throughout life. Historically, possum fur and skin were used to make balls for sports like marngrook, which some believe influenced Australian Rules Football.

While possums are protected in Australia, they are considered a pest in New Zealand, where their fur and skin continue to be harvested for its superior insulating properties.

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How a lethal toxin from a sea snail could be a source of better medicines

Scientists are uncovering potential treatments for diabetes and hormone disorders from an unexpected source: a toxin found in one of the planet’s most venomous creatures that is a lethal toxin from a sea snail could be a source of better medicines.

A global team of researchers, led by scientists from the University of Utah, has discovered a substance in the venom of the geography cone snail that mimics somatostatin, a human hormone that regulates blood sugar and other hormones. This hormone-like toxin, which the snail uses to hunt prey, has long-lasting and specific effects that could inspire the development of improved drugs for diabetes and hormone-related disorders. Their findings were published in Nature Communications on August 20, 2024.

A Path to Better Medicines

The toxin, named consomatin, acts similarly to somatostatin by controlling blood sugar and hormone levels. However, consomatin is more stable and precise, making it a promising candidate for drug development. By studying how consomatin interacts with somatostatin’s targets in human cells, scientists found that while somatostatin affects multiple proteins, consomatin only impacts one. This specificity allows it to regulate blood sugar and hormone levels without affecting other critical molecules.

Not only is consomatin more targeted than the best synthetic drugs currently available, but it also remains active in the body longer due to the presence of a unique amino acid that makes it resistant to breakdown. This stability is valuable for designing drugs with long-lasting therapeutic effects.

Learning from Deadly Venoms

Dr. Helena Safavi, a biochemistry professor at the University of Utah and senior author of the study, explains that although it may seem counterintuitive, studying venoms can lead to important medical breakthroughs. Venomous creatures, through evolution, have developed toxins that precisely target and disrupt specific molecules in their prey’s bodies—precision that can be harnessed for medical treatments. “Venom components are fine-tuned to hit specific targets,” Safavi notes. “When we isolate one component and study how it affects physiology, that pathway is often crucial for treating diseases.”

Consomatin, which shares an evolutionary background with somatostatin, has been weaponized by the cone snail to prevent its prey’s blood sugar from rising. This toxin works in tandem with another venom component similar to insulin, which rapidly reduces blood sugar, causing the prey to become unresponsive. Consomatin then keeps the blood sugar levels low.

According to Ho Yan Yeung, a postdoctoral researcher and the study’s first author, this dual-action venom hints that other undiscovered toxins in the venom could regulate blood sugar. These toxins might pave the way for better treatments for diabetes.

While it may seem surprising that a snail can outperform human drug design, Safavi points out that cone snails have had millions of years to perfect their venom, whereas humans have only been working on drug development for a few centuries. “Cone snails have had the time to do it right,” she says.

Beetles can be found in almost every habitat on Earth, from forests and deserts to freshwater environments. They have adapted to survive in a wide range of conditions. Beetle that Uses the Light of 100 Billion Stars to Push Dung Inspires Advances in Drone and Satellite Navigation

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How Beetle that Uses the Light of 100 Billion Stars to Push Dung Inspires Advances in Drone and Satellite Navigation

The dung beetle is the first known species to use the Milky Way for nighttime navigation, relying on the constellation of stars to roll dung balls in a straight line, avoiding competitors. Swedish researchers discovered this behavior in 2013, and now, Australian engineers are replicating the technique to develop an AI sensor that accurately measures the Milky Way’s orientation in low-light conditions.

Professor Javaan Chahl, a remote sensing engineer from the University of South Australia, along with his PhD students, used computer vision to show that the broad band of light from the Milky Way is not impacted by motion blur, unlike individual stars.

“Nocturnal dung beetles move their head and body a lot while rolling manure, so they need a stable point in the night sky to guide them in a straight path,” says Prof Chahl. “Their compound eyes can’t clearly distinguish individual stars during movement, but the Milky Way remains highly visible.”

In experiments using a camera mounted on a moving vehicle, UniSA researchers captured images of the Milky Way, both while the vehicle was stationary and in motion. These images were used to create a computer vision system that reliably tracks the Milky Way’s orientation, marking the first step toward a new navigation system.

The findings, published in Biomimetics, highlight the potential of this orientation sensor to serve as a backup for stabilizing satellites and aiding drones and robots in navigating low-light environments, even in the presence of motion blur.

“For the next phase, I plan to test the algorithm on a drone to allow it to fly autonomously at night,” says lead author and UniSA PhD candidate Yiting Tao.

While many insects rely on the sun for daytime navigation—like wasps, dragonflies, honeybees, and desert ants—nocturnal insects use the moon or, when it’s obscured, the Milky Way, as dung beetles and some moths do. Prof Chahl emphasizes that insect vision has long provided inspiration for engineers working on navigation systems.

“Insects have been solving complex navigational challenges for millions of years with a brain consisting of only tens of thousands of neurons, while even the most advanced machines struggle to replicate these abilities,” Chahl said.”

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In the immune system, cell communication is critical for coordinating the body’s defense against pathogens. Immune cells, such as T cells and dendritic cells, use signaling molecules like cytokines to activate, regulate, and direct the immune response, ensuring that it targets harmful invaders effectively while avoiding damage to healthy tissues. So inflammation affects cellular communication by immune system.

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Cell communication refers to the process by which cells interact with each other through signaling molecules. These interactions are crucial for coordinating various cellular activities, such as growth, immune responses(because inflammation affects cellular communication), and tissue repair.

How inflammation affects cell communication:

During inflammation, cell communication is heightened as immune cells release signaling molecules to recruit other immune cells to the site of injury or infection. This communication is essential for initiating and sustaining the inflammatory response, which helps the body fight off infections and repair damaged tissues. However, dysregulated communication can lead to chronic inflammation and diseases like multiple sclerosis.

STAT4:

STAT4 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 4) is a protein that plays a critical role in the immune system. It belongs to the STAT family of transcription factors, which are essential for transmitting signals from cytokines (signaling molecules) and growth factors to the cell nucleus, where they influence gene expression.

Function of STAT4:

STAT4 is primarily involved in the development and function of Th1 cells, a subset of T cells that produce the cytokine interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). Th1 cells are essential for the immune response against intracellular pathogens. STAT4 also influences the production of other cytokines that help coordinate the immune response and inflammation.

How inflammation affects cellular communication in new way

• Researchers at Indiana University School of Medicine have made notable strides in understanding how cells communicate during inflammation. Their five-year study, recently published in PNAS, concentrated on the molecules that facilitate cellular functions during inflammation, especially in the central nervous system, where diseases like multiple sclerosis arise.
• Communication is crucial in any relationship, even at the cellular level where diseases are involved. The molecules enabling cell functions during inflammation act like text messages exchanged between or within cells. Researchers have been investigating which cells receive these messages and how they respond in an inflammatory environment within the central nervous system, leading to diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
• The signaling molecule STAT4, previously thought to mainly function in T cells (a part of the immune system), was discovered by the team to play a critical role in dendritic cells—a specific cell type that reacts to the extracellular signals IL-12 and IL-23.
• Research has shown that STAT4 could be a potential target for treating inflammatory diseases in the central nervous system. By comprehending cellular communication and STAT4’s role, researchers may develop therapies to modify immune responses and ease symptoms of diseases like multiple sclerosis.
• The study’s lead author, Nada Alakhras, PhD, is a recent IU School of Medicine graduate who now works at Eli Lilly and Company. Other contributors include Wenwu Zhang, Nicolas Barros, James Ropa, Raj Priya, and Frank Yang, all from IU, and Anchal Sharma of Eli Lilly and Company.

USC researchers create an AI model that forecasts the precision of protein-DNA binding, recently published in Nature Methods, that accurately predicts how various proteins may bind to DNA. This technological breakthrough, called Deep Predictor of Binding Specificity (DeepPBS), has the potential to significantly reduce the time needed for developing new drugs and medical treatments.

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How researchers create an AI model that forecasts the precision of protein-DNA binding:

• DeepPBS is a geometric deep learning model designed to predict the binding specificity of protein-DNA interactions based on the structures of protein-DNA complexes. By inputting the structure of a protein-DNA complex into an online computational tool, researchers can determine how a protein might bind to any DNA sequence or region of the genome, bypassing the need for high-throughput sequencing or structural biology experiments.
• “Structures of protein-DNA complexes usually involve proteins bound to a single DNA sequence,” explained Remo Rohs, professor and founding chair of the Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology at USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences. “DeepPBS provides a much-needed AI tool to reveal protein-DNA binding specificity.”
• DeepPBS uses a geometric deep learning approach, analyzing data through geometric structures to predict binding specificity. The AI tool generates spatial graphs that depict protein structure and the relationship between protein and DNA representations, offering predictions for binding specificity across different protein families, something many current methods can’t do.
• “Having a universal method for all proteins, not just those from well-studied families, is crucial for researchers. This approach also opens the door to designing new proteins,” said Rohs.
• The field of protein-structure prediction has seen rapid advancements with tools like DeepMind’s AlphaFold, which predicts protein structure from sequences. DeepPBS complements these methods by predicting specificity for proteins lacking experimental structures.
• Rohs highlighted that DeepPBS has numerous potential applications. It could accelerate the design of new drugs and treatments targeting specific mutations in cancer cells and contribute to breakthroughs in synthetic biology and RNA research.

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