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Do you want to how domestic rabbits become feral in the wild? Researchers at the Texas A&M School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (VMBS) have discovered how natural selection “rewilds” domestic rabbits. Published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, the study addresses how typically tame rabbits, which face many natural predators, can become ecologically destructive when reintroduced to the wild, whether intentionally or accidentally.
Date
July 12, 2024
Source
Texas A&M University
Summary
After analyzing the genomes of nearly 300 rabbits from Europe, South America, and Oceania, researchers discovered that all of them possessed a combination of feral and domestic DNA. This finding was contrary to their expectations.
Rabbits are notorious for their nuisance in gardens, but the extent of their ecological destruction is often underestimated. Dr. Leif Andersson, a professor in the VMBS’ Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences and at Uppsala University in Sweden, highlights Australia as a prime example.
In 1859, Englishman Thomas Austin released 24 European rabbits on his estate for sport. This led to a rabbit population explosion, causing ongoing environmental damage and significant crop losses each year. Interestingly, rabbits had been introduced to Australia as early as 1788 without such drastic consequences.
Experiment of How domestic rabbits become feral in the wild
Experiment
Observation
Conclusion
Scientists have done sequencing the genomes of nearly 300 rabbits from Europe, South America, and Oceania
Researchers found that all of them had a mix of feral and domestic DNA.
Findings show that these rabbits already had a portion of wild DNA aiding their survival in nature.
Experiment of How domestic rabbits become feral in the wild
Genetic Mixing of Feral and Domestic DNA
Andersson said “This was not what we had expected to find – we thought feral rabbits were domestic ones that had relearned how to survive in the wild. Instead, our findings indicate that these rabbits already possessed a portion of wild DNA that assisted their survival in nature.”
This genetic insight explains why the 24 rabbits introduced to Australia in 1859 adapted so swiftly to the wild – they already carried the necessary genetic traits for thriving in natural environments.
The Process of Rewilding Domestic Rabbits
Returning a domesticated species to the wild is not straightforward.
Domestic rabbits have been bred to be more docile and trusting than their wild counterparts, and often have coat colors like black or white that make them easy targets for predators.
During the rewilding process, natural selection eliminates many of these domestic traits because they are maladaptive for survival in the wild.
“It’s not just coat colors that change,” Andersson explained. “Many genetic variants related to behavior, such as tameness, are also removed, reinstating the wild flight instinct essential for evading predators.”
The rewilding process depends on whether the rabbits already have wild genes in their DNA as a foundation.
This study will help lawmakers understand the importance of preventing domestic animals from being released into the wild.
This project has shed light on how rabbits become feral and has implications for other species like pigs and cats.
How domestic rabbits become feral in the wild through a process of natural selection that favors traits aiding survival, has explained in this study. This includes shedding maladaptive domestic traits and reactivating wild instincts, facilitated by the presence of inherent wild DNA within their genomes.
FAQ:
1. What is the scientific name of the domestic rabbit?
The scientific name of the domestic rabbit is Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus and The scientific name of the wild rabbit is Oryctolagus cuniculus
2. How do domestic rabbits differ from their wild counterparts?
Domestic rabbits have been selectively bred for specific traits such as docility, a variety of coat colors, and a calmer temperament. Wild rabbits, on the other hand, are adapted for survival with a stronger flight instinct and camouflage coloring.
Antibiotic resistance, where disease-causing microorganisms evolve to survive treatments that once killed them, is a global public health concern. The overuse of antimicrobial agents in humans, livestock, and industrial agriculture is the main driver of this resistance. So harnessing big data helps scientists home in on new antimicrobials.
Date
July 16, 2024
Source
eLife
Summary
Researchers have developed a method to identify new antimicrobial drugs with therapeutic potential from bacterial datasets, offering clues for discovering alternatives to traditional antibiotics.
Harnessing big data helps scientists home in on new antimicrobials
The study, published on 16th July, 2024 as a Reviewed Preprint in eLife, introduces a valuable new strategy for identifying novel lysins (enzymes produced by phages during infection) with antimicrobial activity. According to the editors, the evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of two lysins discovered in the study, PHAb10(Phage Antibiotic10) and PHAb11(Phage Antibiotic11), is robust. These findings will be of general interest to microbiologists for further exploration.
Role of Lysine
Lysins, derived from phages(viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria) have antimicrobial effects and are considered promising alternatives to antibiotics due to their low risk of resistance and unique mechanisms.
Recent studies have linked lysins’ antimicrobial activity to their internal peptides, short chains of up to 50 amino acids with antimicrobial peptide-like architecture.
This led researchers to scan bacterial proteomes—entire sets of proteins expressed by bacterial genomes—rather than genomes themselves, to identify new lysins with antimicrobial activity.
Experiment of harnessing big data helps scientists home in on new antimicrobials
Using P307, a well-documented antimicrobial peptide, as a template, the team searched the proteome database for the bacterium Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii), publicly available from the National Center for Biotechnology Information.
They discovered five new lysins with antimicrobial potential: PHAb7-11, with PHAb10 and PHAb11 showing the most promise. To evaluate their antimicrobial activity, the team chemically synthesized their gene-coding sequences and expressed them in Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells.
They then tested their activity against three species of bacteria: A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli, finding that even at low concentrations, the lysins had high antibacterial activity.
Further tests showed PHAb10 and PHAb11 maintained robust antibacterial activity against six different cultures of bacteria in both stationary and exponential phases, regardless of antibiotic resistance.
Additionally, PHAb10 and PHAb11 retained significant antibacterial activity after heat treatment at 100°C for one hour, unlike PHAb7, PHAb8, and PHAb9.
X-ray crystallography revealed that PHAb10 underwent a folding-refolding process during heat treatment, stabilizing under heat stress and returning to dimeric units when cooling.
Finally, the team tested PHAb10 in two mouse models of bacterial infection, finding that it safely and efficiently cleared the infection, demonstrating its therapeutic potential.
Aim of This Study
The eLife’s reviewers emphasized the need for further tests to enhance the robustness of the findings, such as a live/dead assay to differentiate between live and dead bacterial cells, providing greater insight into the lysins’ efficacy.
Future of This Study
Researchers’ work show that daily updated big data, such as bacterial genomes and proteomes, can be crucial in the fight against antibiotic resistance.
They successfully identified new antimicrobial lysins with therapeutic promise using our screening strategy. PHAb10 and PHAb11 are highly thermostable lysins with broad-spectrum antimicrobial action. If future studies validate this findings, these lysins could be explored further as potential therapeutic treatments.
FAQ on harnessing big data helps scientists home in on new antimicrobials
1. What are lysins?
Lysins are enzymes produced by bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) during infection. They degrade the bacterial cell wall, leading to cell lysis and death. Lysins are gaining attention as potential alternatives to traditional antibiotics due to their unique mode of action and low risk of resistance development.
2. How do lysins work?
Lysins target and break down the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls, causing the bacterial cell to burst and die. This action is highly specific, meaning lysins can be tailored to target specific types of bacteria without affecting beneficial microorganisms.
Emerging disease in dogs is similar to cystic fibrosis in humans. But what this disease is? A canine gallbladder disease marked by the accumulation of abnormal mucus is known as gallbladder mucocele formation, results from the slow buildup of thick, dehydrated mucus that disrupts normal gallbladder function, eventually causing obstruction and rupture. Mucocele formation primarily affects purebred dogs, being most common in Shetland sheepdogs in the U.S. and border terriers in the U.K.
Date
July 29, 2024
Source
North Carolina State University
Summary
A canine gallbladder disease characterized by the buildup of abnormal mucus, similar to that observed in human cystic fibrosis (CF) patients, is linked to improper expression of the CF-associated gene. This discovery may have significant implications for both human CF patients and animal models of the disease.
Emerging Disease in Dogs is Similar to Cystic Fibrosis in Humans
In humans, the thick immobile mucus associated with CF results from a defect in the CFTR gene, which is responsible for creating channels in epithelial cells that secrete chloride and water, keeping mucus moist and moveable. In CF, the absence of these channels causes mucus to dehydrate and clog the lungs and intestines. However, in human CF patients, the gallbladders do not fill with dehydrated mucus.
There are no recorded instances of naturally occurring CF in any non-human species. But when researchers study CF in animal models by knocking out the CFTR gene, those animals often develop the same gallbladder pathology we see in dogs with mucocele formation. That led us to wonder whether dogs with mucoceles had a mutation in CFTR -but they didn’t. What they did have was a failure of CFTR to function.”
How Emerging Disease in Dogs is Similar to Cystic Fibrosis in Humans
Researchers conducted whole genome sequencing on blood from eight Shetland sheepdogs with gallbladder mucocele formation and compared the location and frequency of CFTR gene variants to 115 dogs from 12 breeds at high risk for mucocele formation and 2,519 dogs from 340 breeds considered low risk for mucocele formation.
There were no significant differences between the groups, and the dogs with mucocele formation did not have mutations in CFTR in locations where humans with CF do.
“This means that somehow these dogs are acquiring a dysfunction of the CFTR channel that is not based on a gene defect,” researchers explain. “It could be due to other genes and environmental factors influencing CFTR function. Our next steps will be examining the entire genome of these dogs to see if there are other mutations contributing to this disease.
The most eye-opening piece for me is the idea that it is possible to develop a CF-like disease not caused by a CFTR gene mutation. Identifying the cause of CFTR dysfunction in dogs with mucocele formation has important implications for human patients, where similar factors might contribute to CF-like diseases or reveal new treatment targets for CF.”
The research is published in Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology and was supported by the Morris Animal Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.
FAQ:
1. What are the symptoms of gallbladder mucocele formation in dogs?
Symptoms may include vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, jaundice, and loss of appetite. In severe cases, gallbladder rupture can lead to a life-threatening condition requiring immediate medical intervention.
2. How is canine gallbladder disease diagnosed?
Diagnosis typically involves imaging techniques such as ultrasound to detect the presence of abnormal mucus and evaluate gallbladder function. Blood tests and genetic testing may also be used to investigate potential underlying causes.
3. Can gallbladder disease in dogs be prevented?
While specific prevention strategies for gallbladder mucoceles are not well-defined, maintaining a healthy diet, regular veterinary check-ups, and monitoring for early signs of illness can help manage overall gallbladder health.
In recent years, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) with ideograms has opened new horizons in the field of biology. Ideogram AI combines the power of symbolic representation with advanced AI algorithms, revolutionizing how biological data is visualized, analyzed, and understood. This article explores how Ideogram AI can transform biology in innovative ways and ideogram AI is being utilized in biology, making complex information more accessible and actionable.
What is Ideogram AI?
Ideogram AI refers to the use of AI technologies to create, interpret, and enhance ideograms—visual symbols representing ideas or concepts. By leveraging machine learning and other AI techniques, ideogram AI can automate the generation of these symbols, analyze large datasets, and provide insights that are difficult to achieve through traditional methods.
Here is some examples that how Ideogram AI can transform biology in the field of genetics-
One of the most promising applications of ideogram AI is in genetics, where it helps visualize and interpret genetic information efficiently.
Chromosomal Analysis: AI-powered ideograms can analyze chromosomal data to detect abnormalities, such as duplications, deletions, and translocations. These AI-generated karyograms provide a quick and accurate overview of chromosomal structures, aiding in the diagnosis of genetic disorders.
Gene Mapping: Ideogram AI can automate the creation of genetic maps, showing the location of genes on chromosomes. This automation speeds up the process of identifying gene linkages and associations with specific traits or diseases, facilitating advanced genetic research.
Here is some examples that how Ideogram AI can transform biology in the field of molecular biology
In molecular biology, ideogram AI enhances the visualization of molecular structures and processes, making them easier to understand and study.
Protein Structures: AI can generate ideograms that represent the complex 3D structures of proteins. These visualizations help researchers understand protein functions, interactions, and potential drug targets, significantly advancing the field of structural biology.
Pathway Analysis: AI can map out biochemical pathways using ideograms, illustrating the sequence of reactions in a cell. These pathway maps are essential for studying cellular metabolism, signaling, and regulatory mechanisms.
Ecological and Evolutionary Biology
In the broader fields of ecology and evolution, ideogram AI helps visualize relationships and processes that are otherwise difficult to comprehend.
Phylogenetic Trees: AI algorithms can construct and interpret phylogenetic trees—ideograms that depict the evolutionary relationships between species. These trees help scientists trace evolutionary lineages and understand the genetic diversity of organisms.
Ecological Networks: Ideogram AI can model complex ecological networks, such as food webs and species interactions. These models provide insights into ecosystem dynamics, helping ecologists predict changes and develop conservation strategies.
Educational and Research Tools
The integration of ideogram AI in educational and research tools has made learning and scientific exploration more interactive and efficient.
Interactive Learning: Educational platforms use AI-generated ideograms to create interactive modules that explain biological concepts. Students can engage with these visuals to better understand processes like cell division, photosynthesis, and genetic inheritance.
Data Visualization: Researchers benefit from AI-driven ideogram tools that visualize large datasets. By converting raw data into meaningful symbols, ideogram AI helps scientists identify patterns, correlations, and anomalies in their research.
Ideogram AI can transform biology by making complex data more accessible and interpretable. From genetics to ecology, the applications of this technology are vast and impactful. As AI continues to evolve, its integration with ideograms will undoubtedly drive further advancements in biological research and education, making it an indispensable tool for scientists and learners alike.
The living world is related with biodiversity. Biodiversity is the incredible variety of life forms that exist on our planet, from the smallest microorganisms to the largest mammals. It encompasses the richness of ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity, forming the intricate web of life that sustains our world. So it is important to know the differences between genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms found in a particular habitat, ecosystem, or on Earth as a whole. It encompasses the diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems, including everything from the smallest bacteria to the largest mammals and from the genes within a single species to the complex interactions between different species in an ecosystem.
In the realm of biodiversity, three key components play vital roles: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Each of these aspects contributes to the intricate web of life on Earth, but they differ in their scope and significance. Differences between genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity, highlighting their unique characteristics and importance in maintaining a healthy and balanced environment.
Genetic Diversity
Definition: Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genes within a particular species. This includes differences in DNA among individuals of the same species and between populations of the same species.
Importance: Genetic diversity is crucial for the survival and adaptability of a species. Higher genetic variation within a species increases the likelihood that some individuals will possess traits that allow them to survive and reproduce in changing environmental conditions. This adaptability can lead to a species’ long-term survival.
Example: Consider a population of wolves. Genetic diversity within this population might include variations in coat color, resistance to diseases, and hunting skills. These genetic differences help the wolf population adapt to various challenges and environments.
Species Diversity
Definition: Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a particular region or ecosystem. It considers both the number of different species (species richness) and the abundance of each species (species evenness).
Importance: High species diversity contributes to ecosystem resilience, productivity, and stability. Diverse ecosystems are better able to withstand environmental stress and are more productive due to the variety of functions performed by different species.
Example: A coral reef is a prime example of high species diversity. It hosts a wide array of species, including various types of fish, corals, mollusks, and crustaceans, each contributing to the reef’s overall health and functionality.
Ecosystem Diversity
Definition: Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a particular area. This includes the different biological communities and their interactions with the physical environment.
Importance: Ecosystem diversity ensures the availability of multiple habitats, allowing different species to thrive and interact. It also supports a wide range of ecological processes and services, such as nutrient cycling, water purification, and climate regulation.
Example: Ecosystem diversity can be seen in a region that includes forests, wetlands, grasslands, and deserts. Each of these ecosystems provides unique habitats and supports different communities of organisms, contributing to the overall biodiversity of the area.
Comparing the Three Types of Diversity
Scope:
Genetic Diversity focuses on the variety of genes within a single species.
Species Diversity considers the variety of species within a particular habitat or region.
Ecosystem Diversity encompasses the variety of ecosystems within a larger geographic area.
Role in Adaptability:
Genetic Diversity enhances the adaptability of species to changing conditions.
Species Diversity contributes to the resilience and stability of ecosystems.
Ecosystem Diversity ensures the availability of diverse habitats and ecological processes.
Examples:
Genetic Diversity: Different fur colors in a wolf population.
Species Diversity: Various species in a coral reef.
Ecosystem Diversity: Forests, wetlands, and deserts in a single region.
Differences between genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
Aspect
Genetic Diversity
Species Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity
Definition
Variation in genes within a single species.
Variety of species within a particular region.
Variety of ecosystems within a larger geographic area.
Scope
Focuses on genetic differences among individuals and populations of a single species.
Considers the number and abundance of different species in an area.
Encompasses the variety of ecosystems and their interactions within a region.
Importance
Enhances a species’ ability to adapt to changing conditions and survive long-term.
Contributes to ecosystem resilience, productivity, and stability.
Ensures the availability of diverse habitats and supports a range of ecological processes.
Role in Adaptability
Increases the likelihood of survival and reproduction in changing environments.
Helps ecosystems withstand environmental stress and function effectively.
Provides diverse habitats and supports multiple ecological functions.
Examples
Different fur colors, disease resistance, and hunting skills within a wolf population.
Various species in a coral reef, like fish, corals, and mollusks.
Forests, wetlands, grasslands, and deserts within a single region.
Impact on Biodiversity
Affects the genetic health and evolutionary potential of a species.
Influences the richness and evenness of species in an ecosystem.
Determines the complexity and range of ecosystems and their interactions.
Differences between genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
Differences between genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity are intricately interconnected and play critical roles in maintaining the delicate balance of life on Earth. Genetic diversity enables species to adapt and evolve, while species diversity ensures the resilience and stability of ecosystems. Ecosystem diversity, in turn, provides essential services and supports the well-being of all living organisms. Recognizing and valuing these distinct aspects of biodiversity is essential for effective conservation, sustainable development, and the preservation of our planet’s rich natural heritage.
FAQ on Differences between genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
1. How does genetic diversity affect a species’ survival?
Genetic diversity enhances a species’ ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. This increases the chances of survival and reproduction, as some individuals will likely possess traits that help them thrive in new situations.
2. Why is species diversity important for ecosystems?
Species diversity is crucial for ecosystem health. Diverse ecosystems are more resilient to disturbances, such as diseases or climate change, because they have multiple species performing various ecological roles.
3. How does ecosystem diversity contribute to environmental stability?
Ecosystem diversity ensures the presence of a wide range of habitats and ecological processes, supporting diverse species and maintaining overall environmental balance and resilience.
4. Can you provide an example that illustrates genetic diversity?
An example of genetic diversity is the variety of coat colors in a population of dogs. This genetic variation results from differences in the DNA that determine fur color, which can also affect the dogs’ adaptability to different environments.
5. Why should we care about preserving all three types of biodiversity?
Preserving genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity is vital for maintaining healthy, functioning ecosystems. Each type of diversity supports life in different ways, ensuring that ecosystems can adapt to changes, provide resources, and sustain human and wildlife populations.
6. How can human activities impact genetic diversity?
Human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and overhunting can reduce genetic diversity by decreasing population sizes and limiting gene flow between populations, which can lead to inbreeding and decreased adaptability.
The vault RNA (vtRNA) is a captivating player in the complex orchestra of cellular processes. Discovered within cellular vaults, barrel-shaped ribonucleoprotein complexes, vtRNA has emerged as a multifaceted molecule with roles extending beyond its initial identification as a structural component of vaults.
Definition of vault RNA (vtRNA):
The vault RNA (vtRNA) is a non-coding RNA molecule, playing a pivotal role as a structural component within cellular vaults. Cellular vaults are large ribonucleoprotein complexes that exist in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, resembling barrel-shaped containers. First discovered in the 1980s, vtRNA has since been a subject of intense scientific scrutiny, revealing its unique characteristics and diverse functions within the cellular landscape.
Structure of vault RNA (vtRNA):
These barrel-shaped ribonucleoprotein complexes, discovered in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, harbor vault RNA (vtRNA) as a key player in their structural integrity.
Cloverleaf-Like Secondary Structure: At the heart of vtRNA lies a distinct cloverleaf-like secondary structure. This structural motif, conserved across diverse species, defines vtRNA’s unique appearance. The cloverleaf shape is composed of loops, stems, and bulges, contributing to the overall stability and functionality of vtRNA within the cellular vault.
Interaction with Major Vault Proteins: Within the vault structure, vtRNA collaborates with three essential proteins—major vault protein (MVP), vault poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (VPARP), and telomerase-associated protein 1 (TEP1). This interaction is crucial for the formation of the ribonucleoprotein complex, highlighting the cooperative relationship between vtRNA and other cellular components.
Conserved Elements Across Species: The structural characteristics of vtRNA exhibit a high degree of conservation across different organisms. This conservation suggests the fundamental importance of vtRNA’s structural features in the context of cellular vaults. Despite the structural similarities, variations in vtRNA sequences exist, allowing for potential functional diversity across species.
Role in Vault Stability: The cloverleaf-like structure of vtRNA is integral to the overall stability of cellular vaults. The interaction between vtRNA and major vault proteins contributes to the formation of a robust ribonucleoprotein complex, providing the necessary framework for the barrel-shaped vault structure.
Implications for Functionality: While vtRNA’s primary role is structural, its unique secondary structure hints at additional functionalities beyond providing a scaffold for cellular vaults. Ongoing research endeavors aim to unravel the intricate ways in which the structural features of vtRNA contribute to cellular processes, including intracellular transport and responses to cellular stress.
Originally identified as a structural component within cellular vaults, vault RNA (vtRNA) has since revealed itself to be a molecular maestro, influencing diverse aspects of cellular function.
Structural Support in Cellular Vaults: The primary function of vtRNA lies in providing structural support within cellular vaults. These barrel-shaped ribonucleoprotein complexes house vtRNA alongside major vault proteins, contributing to the overall stability and integrity of the vault structure. This structural role forms the foundation for vtRNA’s involvement in various cellular activities.
Intracellular Transport: Vaults, including vtRNA, have been implicated in intracellular transport processes. The interaction between vaults and cellular transport machinery suggests a role in shuttling molecules within the cell. This function is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and ensuring the efficient distribution of vital molecules.
Cellular Stress Response: vault RNA (vtRNA) exhibits dynamic responses to cellular stress conditions, such as exposure to toxins or environmental challenges. Changes in vtRNA expression levels during stress suggest a regulatory role in orchestrating cellular defense mechanisms. Understanding the nuances of vtRNA’s involvement in stress responsesWhile the full spectrum of vtRNA’s functionality is still being unraveled, numerous examples highlight its diverse roles in cellular processes. could provide insights into adaptive cellular strategies.
Immune Regulation and Signaling: VtRNA has been implicated in immune regulation and cellular signaling pathways. Its interactions with various proteins involved in these pathways hint at a regulatory role in immune responses. Unraveling the specific mechanisms through which vtRNA influences immune function holds promise for understanding and potentially manipulating immune responses.
Implications in Cancer: Altered expression of vtRNA has been observed in certain cancers, implicating it in tumorigenesis. The precise nature of this association is still under investigation, but the link between vtRNA and cancer highlights its potential as a biomarker or therapeutic target in cancer research.
Regulation of Cellular Processes: Beyond its structural and transport functions, vtRNA is increasingly recognized for its regulatory role in various cellular processes. It interacts with other cellular components and signaling pathways, influencing gene expression and cellular responses to environmental cues.
While the full spectrum of functionality of vault RNA (vtRNA) is still being unraveled, numerous examples highlight its diverse roles in cellular processes.
Intracellular Transport: One notable example of vtRNA functionality lies in its involvement in intracellular transport. Vaults, with vtRNA at their core, are implicated in shuttling molecules within the cell. This includes the transport of various cellular components, potentially contributing to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis.
Cellular Stress Response: VtRNA exhibits dynamic responses to cellular stress. For instance, during exposure to environmental stressors or toxins, the expression levels of vtRNA may be modulated. This suggests a regulatory role in the cellular stress response, influencing how cells adapt and defend themselves under challenging conditions.
Immune Regulation: Examples of vtRNA’s role in immune regulation have been identified. VtRNA interacts with proteins involved in immune signaling pathways, suggesting a role in modulating immune responses. Understanding these interactions may provide insights into the intricate balance between immune activation and regulation.
Cellular Signaling Pathways: VtRNA has been found to interact with cellular signaling pathways. These interactions can influence the transmission of signals within the cell, potentially impacting processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Unraveling the specific mechanisms through which vtRNA participates in signaling pathways is an ongoing area of research.
Cancer-Associated Alterations: Altered expression of vtRNA has been observed in certain types of cancer. This exemplifies its potential as a biomarker or therapeutic target in cancer research. Investigating the specific changes in vtRNA expression in cancer cells may offer valuable clues for understanding the disease and developing targeted treatments.
Regulation of Gene Expression: VtRNA has been implicated in the regulation of gene expression. By interacting with other cellular components, vtRNA can influence the translation of genetic information into proteins. This regulatory role underscores the complexity of cellular processes in which vtRNA is intricately involved.
The examples discussed here highlight the versatility of vault RNA (vtRNA), showcasing its involvement in intracellular transport, stress response, immune regulation, cancer biology, and the intricate regulation of gene expression.
Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ):
1. What is Vault RNA (vtRNA)?
Vault RNA (vtRNA) is a type of non-coding RNA that is a component of ribonucleoprotein complexes called vaults. These complexes are large, barrel-shaped structures found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
2. What is the structure of vtRNA?
Vault RNAs are approximately 100 nucleotides in length and form a characteristic secondary structure featuring stem-loop motifs. They are specifically packaged into vault particles, where they interact with other proteins to form the vault ribonucleoprotein complex.
3. What is the function of vtRNA?
The precise function of vtRNA is still under investigation, but it is believed to play roles in various cellular processes, including: Drug resistance: vtRNA has been implicated in multidrug resistance by sequestering anti-cancer drugs and promoting their efflux from cells. Cellular transport: Vault particles containing vtRNA have been proposed to participate in intracellular transport mechanisms, although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood. Immunity: Emerging evidence suggests that vtRNA may have immunomodulatory functions, potentially impacting immune responses and inflammation.
4. How is vtRNA involved in drug resistance?
vtRNA has been associated with multidrug resistance in cancer cells, where it may contribute to the efflux of chemotherapeutic agents from cells. By sequestering drugs within vault particles, vtRNA may reduce their intracellular concentrations, leading to decreased efficacy of chemotherapy.
5. Can vtRNA be used as a therapeutic target?
Given its potential role in drug resistance and cellular transport, vtRNA is being investigated as a therapeutic target for overcoming multidrug resistance in cancer treatment. Strategies aimed at disrupting vtRNA function or vault complex formation are being explored for enhancing chemotherapy efficacy.
6. Are there different types of vtRNA?
Yes, multiple isoforms of vtRNA have been identified in different organisms, including humans. These isoforms may exhibit variations in sequence, structure, and expression levels, suggesting potential functional diversity among vtRNA molecules.
In the intricate world of molecular machinery, the Drosha emerges as a key player, orchestrating the initial steps of microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis. The structure of this protein unveils a molecular architecture finely tuned for its essential function of recognizing and processing primary miRNA transcripts (pri-miRNAs).
Definition of Drosha:
Drosha, a key player in gene regulation, is an endoribonuclease enzyme responsible for initiating the processing of primary microRNA transcripts (pri-miRNAs) into precursor miRNAs (pre-miRNAs) in the nucleus.
This essential step marks the beginning of the intricate pathway leading to the generation of mature microRNAs, pivotal molecules in the post-transcriptional control of gene expression. Drosha’s precise cleavage activity exemplifies its significance in shaping the cellular symphony of gene regulation.
Structure:
The mechanism of pri-miRNA processing reveals a molecular ballet orchestrated by enzymatic players, with the Drosha-DGCR8 complex taking center stage.
**1. Drosha Protein:
At the core of this protein complex is the Drosha protein, a multifaceted enzyme belonging to the RNase III family.
It features two RNase III domains, which are essential for its endonuclease activity, facilitating the precise cleavage of pri-miRNAs.
**2. DGCR8 (DiGeorge Syndrome Critical Region 8) Protein:
The collaboration between Drosha and the DGCR8 protein is pivotal in forming the functional Drosha complex.
DGCR8 acts as a molecular partner, enhancing the specificity of the complex in recognizing pri-miRNAs.
**3. Double-Stranded RNA-Binding Domain (dsRBD):
It is equipped with a double-stranded RNA-binding domain (dsRBD) that aids in the recognition of the double-stranded regions of pri-miRNAs.
This domain plays a crucial role in the interaction with DGCR8 and ensures the accuracy of pri-miRNA binding.
**4. PAZ Domain:
Another important component of the this protein is the PAZ domain.
The PAZ domain contributes to the interaction between Drosha and DGCR8, influencing the precise positioning of the complex on pri-miRNA substrates.
**5. Conformational Dynamics:
The structure of this protein complex is dynamic and undergoes conformational changes upon binding to pri-miRNAs.
The interaction with DGCR8 induces a structural shift in Drosha, forming the active Microprocessor complex ready for cleavage.
**6. Subunit Interaction:
The interaction between Drosha and DGCR8 is not just a physical association but involves a complex interplay of subunit interactions.
These interactions are crucial for the stability and functionality of the Drosha complex during pri-miRNA recognition and cleavage.
**7. Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS):
This protein contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS) that guides the complex to the nucleus where pri-miRNA processing occurs.
The NLS ensures the precise subcellular localization of this protein complex, emphasizing its role in the nucleus.
Function:
The precision of the Drosha-DGCR8 complex ensures accurate cleavage, setting the stage for the subsequent steps in miRNA biogenesis.
Recognition of pri-miRNAs:
The primary function of it is to recognize and process pri-miRNAs, the initial transcripts of miRNA genes.
DGCR8, through its dsRBD domain, recognizes and binds to the single-stranded regions of pri-miRNAs.
Formation of the Microprocessor Complex:
DGCR8 binding induces a conformational change in it, leading to the formation of the active Microprocessor complex.
This complex is poised at the base of the pri-miRNA hairpin structure, ready for precise cleavage.
Cleavage at the Base of the Hairpin Structure:
The RNase III domains of this protein perform a precise cleavage at the base of the pri-miRNA hairpin.
This cleavage separates the pri-miRNA into two distinct fragments, yielding the precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA) with characteristic 2-nucleotide overhangs.
Quality Control and Strand Selection:
The cleavage products undergo a quality control check to ensure fidelity in processing.
One strand of the pre-miRNA is preferentially selected as the mature miRNA strand, while the other strand is often degraded.
While renowned for its role in the initiation of microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis and subsequent gene silencing, this protein complex unfolds into a multifaceted orchestrator influencing diverse cellular processes. This molecular machinery, comprising this protein and its partner DGCR8, extends its reach beyond mere gene silencing, engaging in an array of functions that contribute to the intricate symphony of cellular dynamics.
**1. Transposon and Genome Defense:
This protein complex plays a pivotal role in defending the genome against invasive elements such as transposons.
By contributing to the biogenesis of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), Drosha aids in the surveillance and suppression of transposon activity, preserving genome integrity.
**2. Cellular Stress Response:
In the face of cellular stressors, this protein complex steps into action, dynamically responding to environmental challenges.
Its expression and activity can be modulated under conditions of stress, indicating a role in cellular adaptation and survival.
**3. Regulation of Developmental Processes:
Beyond its involvement in miRNA biogenesis, this complex influences fundamental developmental processes.
It participates in pathways that govern cell differentiation, tissue development, and embryonic morphogenesis, contributing to the intricacies of organismal development.
**4. Tissue Homeostasis and Repair:
The Drosha complex is implicated in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and repair mechanisms.
Through its role in miRNA biogenesis, it contributes to the regulation of cellular processes crucial for tissue health and recovery from injuries.
**5. Neurological Functions:
This protein complex has been found to play a vital role in the nervous system, influencing neurodevelopment and neuronal functions.
Its involvement in processes like synaptogenesis underscores its significance in shaping the intricate wiring of the brain.
**6. Regulation of Cellular Proliferation and Differentiation:
Drosha’s impact extends beyond gene silencing to the regulation of cellular proliferation and differentiation.
By influencing the expression of genes involved in cell cycle progression and fate determination, this complex contributes to the finely tuned orchestration of cellular behavior.
**7. Implications in Aging:
Emerging evidence suggests a connection between this protein complex and the aging process.
It’s deficiency has been linked to premature aging in certain model organisms, pointing toward its potential role in modulating the rate of aging.
**8. Disease Associations:
Dysregulation of this protein complex has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurodevelopmental disorders.
Its involvement in diverse cellular functions positions it as a potential player in the pathogenesis of conditions beyond those traditionally associated with gene silencing.
This protein complex, a pivotal player in microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis and gene regulation, plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular health. Dysregulation of this intricate molecular machinery has been linked to a spectrum of diseases, offering insights into the broader impact of this complex on human health.
**1. Cancer:
One of the prominent areas where this complex dysregulation is observed is in cancer development.
Altered expression levels of it and its cofactors have been documented in various cancer types. The dysregulation often leads to aberrant miRNA processing, impacting the delicate balance of gene expression that governs cellular proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.
**2. Neurodevelopmental Disorders:
The intricate involvement of this complex in neurodevelopment extends its relevance to neurodevelopmental disorders.
Mutations or dysregulation of this complex components have been associated with conditions such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and intellectual disabilities, underscoring its significance in shaping the developing nervous system.
**3. Cardiovascular Diseases:
The role of this complex extends to cardiovascular health, with implications in heart-related conditions.
Dysregulation of miRNAs processed by the Drosha complex has been linked to cardiovascular diseases, influencing processes such as angiogenesis, cardiac hypertrophy, and vascular function.
**4. Immune System Disorders:
The intricate interplay between miRNAs and immune system regulation implicates the Drosha complex in immune-related disorders.
Dysregulation of miRNAs processed by Drosha may contribute to autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly targets the body’s own tissues.
Dysregulation of the Drosha complex has been implicated in autoimmune diseases.
In conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), altered miRNA expression patterns associated with Drosha complex dysfunction may contribute to immune dysregulation and autoimmunity.
**5. Metabolic Disorders:
Emerging research suggests a connection between the Drosha complex and metabolic disorders.
Dysregulation of miRNAs involved in metabolic processes may contribute to conditions such as obesity and diabetes, highlighting the potential impact of Drosha complex dysfunction on systemic metabolism.
In obesity and type 2 diabetes, dysregulation of miRNAs involved in metabolic processes processed by Drosha may contribute to systemic metabolic dysfunction.
**6. Hematological Disorders:
Dysregulation of miRNAs processed by the Drosha complex has been implicated in hematological disorders.
Conditions such as leukemia and lymphoma may exhibit aberrant miRNA expression patterns linked to Drosha complex dysfunction.
**7. Infectious Diseases:
The Drosha complex, through its role in RNA processing, may influence host responses to viral infections.
Altered Drosha complex activity has been observed in the context of viral infections, suggesting a potential link to the host’s ability to mount an effective antiviral response.
The Drosha complex may influence host responses to viral infections.
Altered Drosha complex activity has been observed in the context of viral infections such as hepatitis B and C, suggesting a potential role in the host’s antiviral defense mechanisms.
The Drosha emerges as a molecular linchpin with far-reaching implications for health and disease. Its intricate involvement in microRNA biogenesis extends beyond gene silencing, influencing diverse cellular processes. Dysregulation of the Drosha complex is implicated in conditions ranging from cancer and neurodevelopmental disorders to cardiovascular diseases and immune-related disorders.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):
1. What is Drosha and what is its role in gene regulation?
Drosha is an endoribonuclease enzyme involved in the biogenesis of microRNAs (miRNAs) in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Its primary role is to cleave primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) transcripts into precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA) hairpin structures, which are further processed into mature miRNAs involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation.
2. What is the structure of Drosha?
Drosha is a large multidomain protein characterized by several functional domains, including: RNase III domains: These catalytic domains are responsible for cleaving the stem-loop structures of pri-miRNAs to generate pre-miRNAs. Double-stranded RNA-binding domain (dsRBD): This domain facilitates the recognition and binding of pri-miRNA substrates. Nuclear localization signal (NLS): Essential for targeting Drosha to the nucleus where it functions in miRNA biogenesis.
3. Where is Drosha localized within the cell?
Drosha is primarily localized within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, where it functions in the processing of pri-miRNA transcripts into pre-miRNA hairpin structures. Its nuclear localization is mediated by the presence of a nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequence within its structure.
4. What is the function of Drosha in microRNA biogenesis?
Drosha plays a critical role in the biogenesis of microRNAs (miRNAs) by cleaving long primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) transcripts into precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA) hairpin structures. This processing step occurs in the nucleus and represents the initial step in the maturation of functional miRNAs, which are then exported to the cytoplasm for further processing and incorporation into RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISCs).
5. How does Drosha recognize and process pri-miRNA transcripts?
Drosha recognizes and processes pri-miRNA transcripts through a multistep mechanism: Recognition: Drosha binds to the pri-miRNA transcript in association with other proteins, forming a large ribonucleoprotein complex known as the microprocessor complex. Cleavage: The RNase III domains of Drosha catalyze the cleavage of the pri-miRNA stem-loop structure, releasing the precursor miRNA hairpin (pre-miRNA) and a terminal loop fragment. Co-transcriptional processing: Drosha-mediated cleavage often occurs co-transcriptionally, enabling efficient processing of pri-miRNA transcripts as they are synthesized by RNA polymerase II.
6. What are the consequences of Drosha dysfunction or dysregulation?
Dysfunction or dysregulation of Drosha can lead to aberrant miRNA biogenesis and contribute to various diseases and developmental disorders, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and congenital syndromes. Altered expression or activity of Drosha may disrupt normal gene regulatory networks controlled by miRNAs, impacting cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.
What is Living related to life and the life is all around us, from the towering trees in a forest to the tiniest microorganisms in a drop of water. The living world possess a remarkable set of characteristics that define their existence. These characteristics encompass everything from the way they are structured to how they interact with their environment and reproduce.
The Living World and What is Living?
In the living world the living refers to the state of being alive or having the qualities of life. Living organisms are those entities that exhibit certain characteristics which differentiate them from non-living matter. These characteristics include organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, reproduction, and evolution.
What is Living?
Living entities, often referred to as organisms, are the fundamental units of life on Earth. They exhibit a variety of characteristics that distinguish them from non-living matter. Understanding what makes something “living” involves exploring several key attributes that all living organisms share.
Characteristics of Living Things
Cellular Organization
All living things are composed of cells, which are the basic units of life. Cells can be unicellular (single-celled) like bacteria, or multicellular (many cells) like plants and animals. Each cell performs vital functions that contribute to the organism’s survival.
Metabolism
Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism. These reactions are necessary for maintaining life, allowing organisms to grow, reproduce, repair damage, and respond to their environment. Metabolism involves both anabolism (building up) and catabolism (breaking down) processes.
Growth and Development
Living organisms undergo growth, an increase in size and often in number of cells. Development refers to the changes in the organism’s life cycle, from its origin to its adult form. This process is guided by the organism’s genetic information.
Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced. It can be asexual, involving a single organism, or sexual, involving the combination of genetic material from two organisms. Reproduction ensures the continuity of species.
Response to Stimuli
All living things can respond to their environment. This characteristic, known as irritability, involves reacting to physical or chemical changes in the surroundings. For example, plants grow towards light, and animals may flee from danger.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. This includes regulating temperature, pH levels, and other vital functions to keep the organism’s internal environment within a certain range.
Adaptation through Evolution
Over time, living organisms undergo evolution, a process where inherited characteristics change across generations. This enables organisms to adapt to their environment, improving their chances of survival. Evolution is driven by natural selection, genetic drift, mutations, and gene flow.
Living organisms are made up of various elements and compounds, primarily carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements combine to form molecules essential for life, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. These molecules play critical roles in the structure and function of cells.
Proteins: Made of amino acids, they perform numerous functions including catalyzing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, and transporting molecules.
Lipids: These include fats and oils, which store energy and make up cell membranes.
Carbohydrates: These provide energy and structural support.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information.
The Diversity of Life
The living world is incredibly diverse, encompassing a wide range of organisms from the simplest bacteria to the most complex plants and animals. This diversity is categorized into various levels of biological classification: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. Each level groups organisms based on shared characteristics and evolutionary history.
Domains: The broadest classification, including Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
Kingdoms: Further division within domains, such as Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria.
Non-living things encompass everything in our universe that does not exhibit the characteristics of life. Unlike living organisms, non-living entities do not grow, reproduce, respond to stimuli, or maintain homeostasis. They can be natural, like rocks and water, or man-made, like buildings and computers. Understanding what constitutes non-living helps us appreciate the differences between the animate and inanimate components of our world.
Composed of one or more cells, which are the basic units of life
Do not have cells
Metabolism
Exhibit metabolic processes such as respiration and digestion
Do not have metabolic processes
Growth
Grow by increasing in size and/or number of cells
Do not grow; may change in size due to external factors (e.g., erosion)
Reproduction
Capable of reproducing to create new individuals
Cannot reproduce
Response to Stimuli
Respond to environmental changes and stimuli
Do not respond to stimuli
Homeostasis
Maintain a stable internal environment
Do not regulate internal conditions
Adaptation through Evolution
Adapt to their environment over time through evolution
Do not evolve or adapt
Movement
Can move on their own, either the whole organism or parts of it (e.g., cells)
Do not move on their own; may be moved by external forces
Energy Use
Use energy for growth, maintenance, and activities
Do not use energy
Lifespan
Have a definite lifespan, after which they die
Do not have a lifespan; exist indefinitely unless destroyed
Complexity
Highly complex and organized at both molecular and cellular levels
Typically simpler and lack organized structures found in living things
Composition
Made of organic compounds like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids
Composed of inorganic materials and sometimes organic materials
What is Living and The Differences with Non-Living
FAQ on What is Living
1. What does it mean for something to be living?
Being “living” means possessing certain characteristics that distinguish an entity from non-living things. These characteristics include cellular organization, metabolism, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, homeostasis, and adaptation through evolution.
2. Why are cells important for life?
Cells are the basic units of life. They perform essential functions such as energy production, nutrient absorption, and waste removal. In multicellular organisms, specialized cells work together to support the organism’s overall function.
The National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) is a highly competitive examination in India for aspiring medical and dental students. Among the three core subjects, Biology holds immense significance, comprising 50% of the total marks. In this article will provide a comprehensive overview of the NEET Biology syllabus, covering the essential concepts and topics that students must focus on to excel in the examination.
The Table Outlining The NEET Biology syllabus
The NEET Biology syllabus for Class 11:
Unit
Topics
Unit 1: Diversity in the Living World
Introduction to Biology, Classification of Living Organisms, Plant Kingdom, Animal Kingdom
Unit 2: Structural Organization in Plants and Animals
Morphology of Flowering Plants, Anatomy of Flowering Plants, Animal Tissues
Unit 3: Cell Structure and Function
Cell Structure, Cell Organelles, Biomolecules, Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Unit 4: Plant Physiology
Transport in Plants, Mineral Nutrition, Photosynthesis, Respiration
Unit 5: Human Physiology
Digestive System, Respiratory System, Circulatory System, Excretory System, Nervous System
The NEET Biology syllabus for Class 12:
Unit
Topics
Unit 6: Reproduction
Reproduction in Organisms, Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants, Human Reproduction, Reproductive Health
Unit 7: Genetics and Evolution
Principles of Inheritance, Molecular Basis of Inheritance, Evolution, Human Health and Diseases
Unit 8: Biology and Human Welfare
Human Health and Diseases, Microbes in Human Welfare, Biotechnology, Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
Unit 9: Biotechnology and Its Applications
Principles and Processes, Applications in Medicine and Agriculture
Unit 10: Ecology and Environment
Organisms and Populations, Ecosystem, Biodiversity and Conservation, Environmental Issues
Plants Anatomy and functions of different tissues and tissue systems.
Chapter-7: Structural Organization in Animals
Animal tissues; Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive) of an insect (cockroach).
Movement of water, gases and nutrients; cell to cell transport, diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport; plant-water relations, imbibition, water potential, osmosis, plasmolysis; long distance transport of water – Absorption, apoplast, symplast, transpiration pull, root pressure and guttation; transpiration, opening and closing of stomata; Uptake and translocation of mineral nutrients – Transport of food, phloem transport, mass flow hypothesis.
Chapter-12: Mineral Nutrition
Essential minerals, macro- and micronutrients and their role; deficiency symptoms; mineral toxicity; elementary idea of hydroponics as a method to study mineral nutrition; nitrogen metabolism, nitrogen cycle, biological nitrogen fixation.
Chapter-13: Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Photosynthesis as a means of autotrophic nutrition; site of photosynthesis, pigments involved in photosynthesis (elementary idea); photochemical and biosynthetic phases of photosynthesis; cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation; chemiosmotic hypothesis; photorespiration; C3 and C4 pathways; factors affecting photosynthesis.
Chapter-14: Respiration in Plants
Exchange of gases; cellular respiration – glycolysis, fermentation (anaerobic), TCA cycle and electron transport system (aerobic); energy relations – number of ATP molecules generated; amphibolic pathways; respiratory quotient.
Seed germination; phases of plant growth and plant growth rate; conditions of growth; differentiation, dedifferentiation, and re-differentiation; sequence of developmental processes in a plant cell; growth regulators – auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA; seed dormancy; vernalization; photoperiodism.
Chapter-16: Digestion and Absorption
Alimentary canal and digestive glands, role of digestive enzymes and gastrointestinal hormones; Peristalsis, digestion, absorption and assimilation of proteins, carbohydrates and fats; calorific values of proteins, carbohydrates and fats; egestion; nutritional and digestive disorders – PEM, indigestion, constipation, vomiting, jaundice, diarrhoea.
Chapter-17: Breathing and Exchange of Gases
Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans; mechanism of breathing and its regulation in humans – exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of respiration, respiratory volume; disorders related to respiration – asthma, emphysema, occupational respiratory disorders.
Chapter-18: Body Fluids and Circulation
Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood; composition of lymph and its function; human circulatory system – Structure of human heart and blood vessels; cardiac cycle, cardiac output, ECG; double circulation; regulation of cardiac activity; disorders of circulatory system – hypertension, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris, heart failure.
Modes of excretion – ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism; human excretory system – structure and function; urine formation, osmoregulation; regulation of kidney function – renin – angiotensin, atrial natriuretic factor, ADH and diabetes insipidus; role of other organs in excretion; disorders – uraemia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis; dialysis and artificial kidney, kidney transplant.
Chapter-20: Locomotion and Movement
Types of movement – ciliary, flagellar, muscular; skeletal muscle- contractile proteins and muscle contraction; skeletal system and its functions; joints; disorders of muscular and skeletal system – myasthenia gravis, tetany, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, osteoporosis, gout.
Chapter-21: Neural Control and Coordination
Neuron and nerves; Nervous system in humans – central nervous system; peripheral nervous system and visceral nervous system; generation and conduction of nerve impulse; reflex action; sensory perception; sense organs; elementary structure and functions of eye and ear.
Chapter-22: Chemical Coordination and Integration
Endocrine glands and hormones; human endocrine system – hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads; mechanism of hormone action (elementary idea); role of hormones as messengers and regulators, hypo – and hyperactivity and related disorders; dwarfism, acromegaly, cretinism, goiter, exophthalmic goiter, diabetes, Addison’s disease.
NEET Biology Syllabus
NEET Biology Syllabus For Class 12
Chapter-23: Reproduction in Organisms
Reproduction, a characteristic feature of all organisms for continuation of species; modes of reproduction – asexual and sexual reproduction; asexual reproduction – binary fission, sporulation, budding, gemmule formation, fragmentation; vegetative propagation in plants.
Chapter-24: Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Flower structure; development of male and female gametophytes; pollination – types, agencies and examples; outbreeding devices; pollen-pistil interaction; double fertilization; post fertilization events – development of endosperm and embryo, development of seed and formation of fruit; special modes- apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony; Significance of seed dispersal and fruit formation.
Chapter-25: Human Reproduction
Male and female reproductive systems; microscopic anatomy of testis and ovary; gametogenesis – spermatogenesis and oogenesis; menstrual cycle; fertilization, embryo development up to blastocyst formation, implantation; pregnancy and placenta formation (elementary idea); parturition (elementary idea); lactation (elementary idea).
Chapter-26: Reproductive Health
Need for reproductive health and prevention of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs); birth control – need and methods, contraception and medical termination of pregnancy (MTP); amniocentesis; infertility and assisted reproductive technologies – IVF, ZIFT, GIFT (Elementary idea for general awareness).
Chapter-27: Principles of Inheritance and Variation
Heredity and variation: Mendelian inheritance; deviations from Mendelism – incomplete dominance, co- dominance, multiple alleles and inheritance of blood groups, pleiotropy; elementary idea of polygenic inheritance; chromosome theory of inheritance; chromosomes and genes; Sex determination – in humans, birds and honey bee; linkage and crossing over; sex linked inheritance – haemophilia, colour blindness; Mendelian disorders in humans -thalassemia; chromosomal disorders in humans; Down’s syndrome, Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes.
Chapter-28: Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Search for genetic material and DNA as genetic material; Structure of DNA and RNA; DNA packaging; DNA replication; Central dogma; transcription, genetic code, translation; gene expression and regulation. – lac operon; genome and human and rice genome projects; DNA fingerprinting.
Chapter-29: Evolution
Origin of life; biological evolution and evidences for biological evolution (paleontology, comparative anatomy, embryology and molecular evidences); Darwin’s contribution, modern synthetic theory of evolution; mechanism of evolution – variation (mutation and recombination) and natural selection with examples, types of natural selection; Gene flow and genetic drift; Hardy – Weinberg’s principle; adaptive radiation; human evolution.
Chapter-30: Human Health and Diseases
Pathogens; parasites causing human diseases (malaria, dengue, chickengunia, filariasis, ascariasis, typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, amoebiasis, ring worm) and their control; Basic concepts of immunology – vaccines; cancer, HIV and AIDS; Adolescence – drug and alcohol abuse.
Chapter-31: Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
Improvement in food production: Plant breeding, tissue culture, single cell protein, Biofortification, Apiculture and Animal husbandry.
Chapter-32: Microbes in Human Welfare
In household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation and microbes as bio-control agents and bio-fertilizers. Antibiotics; production and judicious use.
Application of biotechnology in health and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine production, stem cell technology, gene therapy; genetically modified organisms – Bt crops; transgenic animals; biosafety issues, bio piracy and patents.
Chapter-35: Organisms and Populations
Organisms and environment: Habitat and niche, population and ecological adaptations; population interactions – mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism; population attributes – growth, birth rate and death rate, age distribution.
Chapter-36: Ecosystem
Ecosystems: Patterns, components; productivity and decomposition; energy flow; pyramids of number, biomass, energy; nutrient cycles (carbon and phosphorous); ecological succession; ecological services – carbon fixation, pollination, seed dispersal, oxygen release (in brief).
Chapter-37: Biodiversity and its Conservation
Biodiversity-Concept, patterns, importance; loss of biodiversity; biodiversity conservation; hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction, Red Data Book, biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries and Ramsar sites.
Chapter-38: Environmental Issues
Air pollution and its control; water pollution and its control; agrochemicals and their effects; solid waste management; radioactive waste management; greenhouse effect and climate change impact and mitigation; ozone layer depletion; deforestation; any one case study as success story addressing the environmental issue(s).
Disclaimer: This NEET Biology syllabus, separating the topics covered in Class 11 and Class 12. It’s important to note that this is a general representation, and the specific topics and subtopics may vary. It’s always advisable to refer to the official NEET syllabus or study materials provided by the exam conducting authority for the most accurate and up-to-date information.
Tips For The Neet Students To Study The Neet Biology Syllabus
Here are some tips for effective biology preparation for NEET:
Understand the concepts: Focus on understanding the concepts rather than rote memorization.
Read NCERT textbooks: Start with NCERT textbooks to build a strong foundation.
Make notes: Prepare concise notes while studying to review important points quickly.
Practice questions: Solve a variety of questions from different sources, including previous year question papers and mock tests.
Revise regularly: Regular revision is essential to retain the learned information.
Use visual aids: Utilize diagrams, flowcharts, and mnemonics to aid in memorization.
Seek clarification: If you have doubts or confusion, seek help from teachers, peers, or online resources.
A strong grasp of the NEET Biology syllabus is crucial for students aiming to pursue medical and dental courses in India. This article has provided a comprehensive overview of the essential concepts and topics covered in the NEET Biology syllabus. By thoroughly understanding and studying these concepts, aspiring students will be better prepared to excel in the NEET examination and embark on a successful career in the medical field. Remember to refer to official NEET syllabus documents and reliable study materials for in-depth understanding and accurate preparation. Best of luck!
Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ) on Neet Biology Syllabus:
1. What is the NEET biology syllabus?
The NEET biology syllabus covers topics from both Botany and Zoology. It includes subjects such as Cell Biology, Genetics and Evolution, Ecology, Human Physiology, Plant Physiology, Diversity in Living Organisms, Reproduction, Biotechnology, and more.
2. How many chapters are there in the NEET biology syllabus?
The NEET biology syllabus consists of a total of 38 chapters. There are 19 chapters in Botany and 19 chapters in Zoology.
3. Are all the chapters in the NEET biology syllabus equally important?
While all the chapters are important, some topics may carry more weightage in the NEET exam. It is recommended to give equal attention to all the chapters, but focus more on topics like Human Physiology, Genetics, Ecology, and Reproduction as they are frequently asked in the exam.
4. Can you provide a list of important chapters in the NEET biology syllabus?
Some important chapters in NEET biology include Human Physiology, Genetics and Evolution, Cell Biology, Ecology, Reproduction, Plant Physiology, Biomolecules, Animal Kingdom, Biotechnology, and Diversity in Living Organisms. However, it is crucial to cover the entire syllabus for comprehensive preparation.
5. Is NCERT sufficient for NEET biology preparation?
NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) textbooks are highly recommended for NEET biology preparation. They cover the entire syllabus and are considered the foundation for the exam. It is advisable to study NCERT thoroughly and then refer to additional study materials for deeper understanding and practice.
Enzymes are highly specific, meaning each enzyme typically catalyzes a single type of reaction. Enzymes can be broadly classified into different types based on the nature of the reactions they catalyze. So it is very necessary to know all the types of enzymes and their functions.
Chart of Types of Enzymes and Their Functions
Each class of enzymes plays a specific role, ensuring the smooth execution of metabolic pathways, synthesis of essential biomolecules, and overall maintenance of cellular homeostasis. The types of enzymes and their functions also help to get the basics of enzymes.
Alanine racemase: Converts one isomer into another in bacterial cell wall synthesis Phosphoglucomutase: Shifts functional groups within a molecule in glucose metabolism
6.
Ligases
Catalyze the joining of two molecules, typically using ATP.
DNA Ligase Acetyl-CoA synthetase
DNA Ligase: Joins DNA fragments during replication and repair Acetyl-CoA synthetase: Forms acetyl-CoA from acetate and coenzyme A in metabolism
This table summarizes the types of enzymes and their functions
Types of Enzymes and Their Functions
Types of Enzymes and Their Functions in Details: Classification of Enzymes
1. Oxidoreductases:
In the types of enzymes and their functions Oxidoreductases are a class of enzymes that play a crucial role in biochemical processes by facilitating oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. These reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule (the reductant) to another (the oxidant). Oxidoreductases are essential for energy production, metabolism, and detoxification in living organisms.
Other Types of Oxidoreductases
In the types of enzymes and their functions Oxidoreductases can be categorized into several types based on the specific reactions they catalyze and the nature of the donor and acceptor molecules. Here are some key types:
Reductases
Function: Catalyze the reduction of a substrate by transferring electrons from NADH or NADPH.
Examples:
Thioredoxin reductase: Involved in maintaining a reduced environment within cells.
Ribonucleotide reductase: Converts ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides, essential for DNA synthesis.
Peroxidases
Function: Reduce hydrogen peroxide by transferring electrons from various substrates.
Examples:
Catalase: Breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, protecting cells from oxidative damage.
Horseradish peroxidase: Used in biochemical assays to detect specific molecules.
Hydroxylases
Function: Introduce hydroxyl groups into substrates by incorporating oxygen atoms.
Examples:
Phenylalanine hydroxylase: Converts phenylalanine to tyrosine, a precursor for neurotransmitters.
Prolyl hydroxylase: Modifies proline residues in collagen, essential for its stability.
2. Transferases
In the types of enzymes and their functions Transferases are a class of enzymes that play a vital role in various biochemical processes by facilitating the transfer of functional groups from one molecule to another. These enzymes are crucial for numerous metabolic pathways, including those involved in energy production, biosynthesis, and signal transduction.
Types of Transferases
Transferases can be categorized into several types based on the specific functional groups they transfer.
Methyltransferases
Function: Transfer methyl groups from donor molecules such as S-adenosylmethionine to acceptor molecules, involved in gene regulation and other processes.
Examples:
DNA methyltransferase: Methylates DNA, influencing gene expression and epigenetic regulation.
Histone methyltransferase: Methylates histones, affecting chromatin structure and gene expression.
Glycosyltransferases
Function: Transfer glycosyl groups to acceptor molecules, crucial for the synthesis of glycoproteins, glycolipids, and polysaccharides.
Examples:
Glycogen synthase: Transfers glucose from UDP-glucose to glycogen, essential for glycogen synthesis.
Oligosaccharyltransferase: Transfers oligosaccharides to nascent proteins during glycosylation in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Acyltransferases
Function: Transfer acyl groups from acyl-CoA to acceptor molecules, involved in lipid metabolism and synthesis.
Examples:
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase: Catalyzes the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, a key step in fatty acid synthesis.
Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT): Transfers acyl groups to cholesterol, forming cholesteryl esters in lipid metabolism.
In the types of enzymes and their functions Hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of chemical bonds. They play a crucial role in various biological processes by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones, facilitating metabolism, digestion, and other essential functions in living organisms. Hydrolases are highly diverse and specific, each tailored to act on particular substrates.
Types of Hydrolases
Hydrolases are classified based on the type of bond they act upon:
Esterases: These enzymes hydrolyze ester bonds, which are common in lipids. An example is lipase, which breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Glycosidases: Also known as glycoside hydrolases, these enzymes break glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates. Amylase, which converts starch into sugars, is a well-known glycosidase.
Peptidases (Proteases): These enzymes hydrolyze peptide bonds in proteins. Trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are involved in protein digestion, are examples of peptidases.
Nucleases: These enzymes cleave the phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids. DNase and RNase are nucleases that degrade DNA and RNA, respectively.
Phosphatases: These enzymes remove phosphate groups from molecules. Alkaline phosphatase is a key enzyme involved in dephosphorylation.
Industrial and Medical Applications
Hydrolases have significant industrial and medical applications:
Biotechnology: Hydrolases are used in recombinant DNA technology to manipulate genetic material. Restriction enzymes, a type of nuclease, cut DNA at specific sequences, enabling genetic engineering.
Food Industry: Enzymes like pectinase and cellulase are used in food processing to enhance texture, clarity, and shelf-life. Lactase is added to dairy products to make them lactose-free.
Medicine: Hydrolase inhibitors are used as drugs to treat diseases. For example, protease inhibitors are crucial in managing HIV infection. Enzyme replacement therapy, involving enzymes like alpha-galactosidase, treats metabolic disorders such as Fabry disease.
Environmental Applications: Hydrolases are employed in bioremediation to degrade pollutants. Lipases, for instance, can break down oil spills, making them valuable in environmental cleanup.
4. Lyases
In the types of enzymes and their functions Lyases are a class of enzymes that play crucial roles in various biochemical processes by catalyzing the addition or removal of groups to form double bonds or the breaking of bonds without hydrolysis or oxidation. These enzymes are essential for a range of metabolic pathways, including those involved in energy production, biosynthesis, and cellular signaling.
Types of Lyases
Lyases can be categorized into several types based on the specific reactions they catalyze. Here are some key types:
Dehydrases
Function: Catalyze the removal of water from a substrate, often forming a double bond.
Examples:
Enolase: Converts 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate in glycolysis by removing water.
Fumarase: Converts fumarate to malate by adding water in the citric acid cycle.
Synthases
Function: Catalyze the addition of groups to double bonds, often forming new compounds.
Examples:
Citrate synthase: Combines acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate to form citrate in the citric acid cycle.
ATP citrate lyase: Converts citrate to acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate in fatty acid biosynthesis.
Lyases Involved in Ring Formation
Function: Catalyze the formation or breakage of rings in organic molecules.
Examples:
Adenylosuccinate lyase: Cleaves adenylosuccinate to form fumarate and AMP in the purine nucleotide cycle.
Histidine ammonia-lyase: Converts histidine to urocanate in histidine catabolism by removing ammonia.
5. Isomerases
In the types of enzymes and their functions Isomerases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule, transforming it into an isomer. This process involves changing the structure of a molecule without adding or removing elements, allowing the molecule to adopt a different configuration. Isomerases play a crucial role in various biochemical pathways, ensuring the proper functioning of metabolic processes.
Types of Isomerases
Isomerases are categorized based on the type of isomerization they facilitate:
Cis-Trans Isomerases: These enzymes facilitate the conversion between cis and trans forms of molecules. An example is peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase, which helps in protein folding by converting proline residues from cis to trans configurations.
Intramolecular Lyases: These enzymes catalyze the breaking and forming of bonds within a molecule to create isomers. An example is aconitase, which converts citrate to isocitrate in the citric acid cycle.
Mechanism of Action
Isomerases function by stabilizing the transition state of the substrate, lowering the activation energy required for the isomerization reaction. This often involves conformational changes in the enzyme to accommodate the substrate and facilitate the rearrangement of atoms.
For instance, in the case of phosphoglucomutase, the enzyme binds glucose-1-phosphate and transfers a phosphate group from the enzyme to the substrate, forming a glucose-1,6-bisphosphate intermediate. This intermediate is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate, completing the isomerization.
Industrial and Medical Applications
Isomerases have significant industrial and medical applications:
Biotechnology: Isomerases are used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and fine chemicals. Their ability to produce specific isomers with high precision makes them valuable in creating compounds with desired biological activity.
Medical Diagnostics and Treatment: Enzyme assays involving isomerases help diagnose metabolic disorders. For example, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is diagnosed by measuring the activity of G6PD, an enzyme involved in the pentose phosphate pathway.
Drug Development: Isomerase inhibitors are used as therapeutic agents. Topoisomerase inhibitors, for example, are used in cancer treatment to prevent DNA replication in rapidly dividing cancer cells.
Food Industry: Isomerases like glucose isomerase are used to convert glucose to fructose in the production of high-fructose corn syrup, a common sweetener in the food industry.
6. Ligases
In the types of enzymes and their functions Ligases are a class of enzymes that play a critical role in various biochemical processes by catalyzing the joining of two molecules. This reaction often involves the formation of a new chemical bond with the concomitant hydrolysis of a high-energy molecule such as ATP. Ligases are essential for a variety of biological functions, including DNA replication, repair, and metabolic pathways. This article provides a detailed overview of ligase enzymes, their functions, and their significance in biological systems.
Types of Ligases
Ligases can be categorized into several types based on the specific reactions they catalyze. Here are some key types:
RNA Ligases
Function: Catalyze the joining of RNA strands, playing a role in RNA repair and processing.
Examples:
RNA Ligase (Rnl1): Joins RNA molecules during RNA splicing and repair in viruses and some bacteria.
T4 RNA Ligase: Used in laboratory techniques for ligating single-stranded RNA molecules.
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases
Function: Catalyze the attachment of amino acids to their corresponding tRNA molecules, a crucial step in protein synthesis.
Examples:
Isoleucyl-tRNA Synthetase: Attaches isoleucine to its tRNA.
Phenylalanyl-tRNA Synthetase: Attaches phenylalanine to its tRNA.
Peptide Synthases
Function: Catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during non-ribosomal peptide synthesis.
Examples:
Gramicidin S Synthetase: Involved in the synthesis of the antibiotic gramicidin S.
Tyrocidine Synthetase: Synthesizes tyrocidine, another antibiotic.
Other Ligases
Function: Catalyze a variety of bond-forming reactions involving different substrates.
Examples:
Glutathione Synthetase: Forms glutathione from glutamate, cysteine, and glycine, important for cellular antioxidant defense.
Acetyl-CoA Synthetase: Converts acetate into acetyl-CoA, a key intermediate in metabolism.
Understanding the types of enzymes and their functions provides insights into how cells function and opens avenues for developing treatments for various diseases and improving industrial processes.
FAQ on Types of Enzymes and Their Functions
1. What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions. They accelerate chemical reactions within cells without being consumed in the process.
2. How are enzymes classified?
Enzymes are classified into several types based on the reactions they catalyze. The main types include oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases.
3. Why are enzymes important in living organisms?
Enzymes are crucial because they regulate biochemical reactions, making them efficient and specific. They are indispensable for processes like digestion, energy production, DNA replication, and maintaining cellular functions.
