Biology News

Scientists render living animal tissue transparent because making living tissue transparent allows researchers to observe biological processes, blood vessels, and organs in real-time without invasive surgery. This could greatly enhance medical imaging, biological research, and our understanding of how the body functions.

Date	September 5, 2024
Source	University of Texas at Dallas
Summary	In a groundbreaking study, researchers have successfully made the skin on the skulls and abdomens of live mice transparent by applying a solution containing water and a common yellow food dye known as tartrazine.

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How scientists render living animal tissue transparent

Dr. Zihao Ou, assistant professor of physics at The University of Texas at Dallas, led the study, which was published in the September 6 issue of Science. While conducting the research as a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University, Ou and his colleagues explored the properties of living skin, which typically scatters light, making it opaque. ‘We combined tartrazine, a light-absorbing molecule, with skin, which scatters light. Together, they created transparency,’ explained Ou, who joined UT Dallas in August.

The effect occurs because dissolving the dye in water changes the solution’s refractive index to match that of skin components, reducing light scattering similar to how fog dissipates. In their experiments, the solution was rubbed onto the mice’s skin, and after the dye diffused, the skin became transparent. The process is reversible, with the dye eventually metabolized and excreted naturally.

Within minutes, researchers were able to observe blood vessels on the brain’s surface and internal organs through the transparent skin. The treated areas took on an orange hue due to the use of FD&C Yellow #5, a food-grade dye found in common snacks. ‘The dye is safe, inexpensive, and highly efficient,’ said Ou.

Although the method has not been tested on humans, whose skin is thicker than that of mice, Ou sees potential applications in medicine. ‘Ultrasound is the current go-to for viewing inside the body, but this technique could offer a more accessible alternative,’ he noted.

One immediate benefit of the technology could be its impact on optical imaging research, where it could revolutionize how live tissue is studied. Ou plans to continue this work at his Dynamic Bio-imaging Lab at UT Dallas, exploring dosages for human tissue and testing other materials that may outperform tartrazine.

The study, co-authored by Stanford researchers and funded by grants from federal agencies, has led to a patent application for the technology.”

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Much like ecosystems depend on the structure provided by termites, termite research also needs a strong foundation. So the terminology of termites has been revised. Now, a new classification system for termites has been developed, the result of collaboration among 46 researchers from across the globe.

Date	September 5, 2024
Source	Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) Graduate University
Summary	A comprehensive classification system for termites has been established through expert consensus and advanced modeling

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Why the terminology of termites has been revised

Just as ecosystems depend on termites for their structure, termite research also needs a solid foundation. Now, a new, globally-developed classification system for termites has emerged, thanks to the collaboration of 46 researchers. This system, based on expert consensus and extensive data analysis, was recently published in Nature Communications. According to Dr. Simon Hellemans, lead author and member of the Evolutionary Genomics Unit at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST), ‘We’ve addressed previous ambiguities with a robust, modular system for classifying termites. This new framework provides a stable platform for future research into termite diversification and their ecological roles, as well as potential discoveries.

A Reunified Termite Family Through Refined Classification

Taxonomy, the classification of organisms, is essential to all biological research. As Dr. Hellemans explains, ‘To study anything in nature, you need to define your units of observation.’ While species don’t care whether we call them Heterotermitidae or Rhinotermitidae, clear classification is critical for researchers to focus their work and communicate effectively. In the past, these classifications were often based on an organism’s physical traits and behaviors, which led to some ambiguities—especially in species like termites, where visual distinctions are subtle.

Over time, this led to a confusing termite family tree, particularly as some species evolved quickly. Despite their diversity, termites were historically grouped into only ten families, often mixing species with unclear evolutionary connections. In taxonomy, monophyly refers to species sharing a common ancestor, while polyphyly groups species by shared traits rather than ancestry, and paraphyly includes some, but not all, descendants of a common ancestor. Termites, while a monophyletic group within cockroaches, have long been classified in ways that involve much polyphyly and paraphyly.

Dr. Hellemans and his team solved this by using extensive data analysis and new morphological surveys, splitting up large subfamilies to eliminate paraphyly and polyphyly in the termite family tree. ‘This allows us to accommodate new species while preserving historical names,’ says Dr. Hellemans, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a stable termite nomenclature.

The new classification is entirely monophyletic, clarifying evolutionary relationships and making it easier to categorize new species. This precision benefits both research and pest control efforts. For instance, the destructive Coptotermes gestroi termite was once grouped with non-pest species like Dolichorhinotermes longilabius due to their physical similarities. Recent phylogenetic studies, however, have confirmed their divergence, reclassifying C. gestroi into the Heterotermitidae family.

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Butterflies at risk have a better chance of survival with human intervention. For years, scientists have warned about the rapid global decline of insect populations due to factors like climate change, habitat destruction, and pesticide use. The study examined data from 114 populations of 31 butterfly species across 10 U.S. states. Researchers discovered that these vulnerable butterflies are experiencing population declines at an average rate of 8% annually, leading to a 50% decrease over a decade. However, the findings suggest that proper habitat management may slow or even reverse these dramatic declines, offering a glimmer of hope for their survival.

Date	September 4, 2024
Source	Washington State University
Summary	A recent study has found that some of the most endangered butterflies are more likely to survive when humans actively manage their habitats.

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Why Butterflies at risk have a better chance of survival with human intervention

• Some of the most endangered butterfly species show improved survival rates when their habitats are actively managed by humans, according to a recent study.
• The research of butterflies at risk have a better chance of survival with human intervention is led by Washington State University researchers Cheryl Schultz and Collin Edwards, the team analyzed data from 114 populations of 31 butterfly species across 10 U.S. states.
• The study published in the Journal of Applied Ecology, the study offers hope that human-managed habitats may slow or even reverse these declines.
• The clearest finding is that butterflies thrive where people actively manage habitats. That’s exciting because it shows habitat management can have a positive impact, even in the face of climate change.
• Due to climate change, many butterflies have shifted the timing of their seasonal activities, often emerging earlier. The ecological impact of such timing shifts remains unclear, but the study found that for these species, large shifts were generally harmful.
• The study included species like the Oregon silverspot, Taylor’s checkerspot, Karner blue, and frosted elfin. It also featured Fender’s blue, a butterfly that has rebounded from near extinction in the 1990s to over 30,000 today.
• Researchers found that habitat interventions such as prescribed burns, mowing, weeding, and planting nectar or “host” plants were tailored to each area’s needs. Volunteers can assist with habitat management through planting and invasive species removal, while homeowners can contribute by creating butterfly-friendly gardens.

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A new study reveals infertility challenges in endangered wild songbird populations. Utilizing 10 years of data, researchers from the University of Sheffield, the Zoological Society of London, and the University of Auckland, New Zealand, have uncovered vital insights into the reproductive challenges faced by the endangered hihi, a rare songbird native to New Zealand.

Date	September 3, 2024
Source	University of Sheffield
Summary	A pioneering study has delivered the most detailed estimate yet of infertility rates in an endangered wild animal species.

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A groundbreaking study has delivered the most comprehensive estimate to date of infertility rates in a threatened wild animal species. This is the first study to establish a link between small population size, sex ratio bias, and reduced fertilization rates in wild animals, emphasizing the significant reproductive difficulties faced by threatened species with small populations and skewed sex ratios.

The research team examined over 4,000 eggs and evaluated the fertility of nearly 1,500 eggs that failed to hatch. The findings indicated that infertility is responsible for an average of 17 percent of hatching failures in hihi, with early embryo death accounting for most hatching failures.

Why a new study reveals infertility challenges in endangered wild songbird populations

• The study found that embryos are most vulnerable within the first two days of development, with no significant difference in survival rates between male and female embryos, and no apparent impact from inbreeding.
• Additionally, infertility rates were higher during years when the population was smaller and male numbers exceeded female numbers, suggesting that increased stress from heightened male harassment of females may contribute to these findings.
• The hihi, known for its high levels of female harassment by males and frequent extra-pair paternity, exemplifies the reproductive challenges faced by species with skewed sex ratios.
• In extreme cases, females may experience up to 16 forced copulations per hour, a behavior that is energetically draining and stressful, potentially leading to reduced fertility.
• By considering the impacts of population size and sex ratio on fertility, conservationists can better manage the numbers and composition of animals in populations, thereby improving fertility rates.

Fay Morland, a PhD student at the University of Sheffield and lead author of the study, said, “One of our key findings is that embryo mortality at the very early stages of development is the most common reason hihi eggs fail to hatch. However, the exact causes of failure at this stage remain unknown. These results highlight the urgent need for more research into the reproductive challenges faced by threatened species to better understand and mitigate the factors driving their risk of extinction.”

Dr. Nicola Hemmings, from the University of Sheffield’s School of Biosciences and leader of the research group, added, “Our research underscores the importance of understanding the factors that affect fertility in endangered species. The link between male-biased sex ratios and lower fertility rates suggests that managing population composition could be crucial for improving reproductive success in conservation programs.”

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The number of fish species at risk of extinction is five times higher than previously estimated, according to a new prediction because the researchers now predict that 12.7% of marine teleost fish species are at risk of extinction, a figure that is five times higher than the previous estimate of 2.5% by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The report also covers nearly 5,000 species that lacked an IUCN conservation status due to insufficient data.

Date	August 29, 2024
Source	PLOS
Summary	The “silent extinction” of 1,337 threatened species includes key fish families vital to reef ecosystems. So the number of fish species at risk of extinction is five times higher than previously estimated, according to a new prediction.

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Why the number of fish species at risk of extinction is five times higher than previously estimated:

Researchers have predicted that 12.7% of marine teleost fish species face extinction, a rate five times higher than the previous 2.5% estimate by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Nicolas Loiseau and Nicolas Mouquet from the Marine Biodiversity, Exploitation, and Conservation (MARBEC) Unit in Montpellier, France, along with their team, published these findings on August 29th in the open-access journal PLOS Biology. Their study also includes nearly 5,000 species that lacked IUCN conservation status due to insufficient data.

The IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species monitors over 150,000 species to guide global conservation efforts. However, 38% of marine fish species—4,992 species at the time of this study—are considered Data-Deficient and do not receive an official conservation status or the associated protections. To improve conservation efforts, Loiseau and colleagues used a machine learning model combined with an artificial neural network to predict extinction risks for Data-Deficient species.

These models were trained using data on species occurrence, biological traits, taxonomy, and human usage from 13,195 species. They categorized 78.5% of the 4,992 species as either Non-Threatened or Threatened (including the Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable IUCN categories). The number of predicted Threatened species increased fivefold, from 334 to 1,671, while the number of predicted Non-Threatened species rose by a third, from 7,869 to 10,451.

Predicted Threatened species typically had small geographic ranges, large body sizes, and low growth rates, with extinction risks also associated with shallow habitats. Hotspots for predicted Threatened species included the South China Sea, the Philippine and Celebes Seas, and the western coasts of Australia and North America. The researchers recommend increased research and conservation efforts in these regions.

They also observed significant changes in conservation priority rankings after incorporating IUCN predictions, suggesting that the Pacific Islands and the Southern Hemisphere’s polar and subpolar regions be prioritized for emerging at-risk species. Many species that remained Data-Deficient were found in the Coral Triangle, highlighting the need for further research there.

While the researchers acknowledge that models cannot replace direct evaluations of at-risk species, they argue that AI provides a rapid, extensive, and cost-effective way to assess extinction risks. Loiseau notes, “Artificial Intelligence (AI) enables reliable assessments of extinction risks for species not yet evaluated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Our analysis of 13,195 marine fish species reveals that the extinction risk is significantly higher than the IUCN’s initial estimates, rising from 2.5% to 12.7%. We propose incorporating recent advancements in forecasting species extinction risks into a new synthetic index called the ‘predicted IUCN status,’ which could complement the current ‘measured IUCN status.”

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Scientists have identified the genomic dark matter uncovers evolutionary mystery in butterflies is a surprising genetic mechanism that affects the vibrant and intricate patterns on butterfly wings. Contrary to previous beliefs, the team found that an RNA molecule, not a protein, is crucial in controlling the distribution of black pigment on butterfly wings.

Date	August 30, 2024
Source	George Washington University
Summary	New Research Unveils an Unexpected Genetic Mechanism Shaping Butterfly Wing Coloration

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The mystery of how butterflies create their vivid wing patterns has intrigued biologists for centuries. The genetic code within the cells of developing butterfly wings directs the specific arrangement of color on the wing’s scales, akin to the way colored pixels form a digital image. Understanding this genetic code is essential for comprehending how our own genes shape our anatomy which will help us to understand that how genomic dark matter uncovers evolutionary mystery in butterflies.

How genomic dark matter uncovers evolutionary mystery in butterflies

• An international team of researchers has discovered the genomic dark matter uncovers evolutionary mystery in butterflies which is an unexpected genetic mechanism that shapes the vibrant and intricate patterns on butterfly wings.
• The study, led by Luca Livraghi of George Washington University and the University of Cambridge, and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reveals that an RNA molecule, rather than the previously assumed protein, plays a crucial role in determining the distribution of black pigment on butterfly wings.
• In the lab, scientists can manipulate this code in butterflies using gene-editing tools to observe changes in visible traits, such as wing coloration. While it has long been known that protein-coding genes are vital to these processes—directing when and where particular pigments should be generated—the new research offers a different perspective.
• The team identified a gene that produces an RNA molecule, not a protein, which controls the placement of dark pigments during butterfly metamorphosis. By using the genome-editing technique CRISPR, the researchers showed that removing the gene responsible for the RNA molecule results in butterflies losing their black pigmented scales entirely, establishing a direct link between RNA activity and the development of dark pigment.
• This RNA molecule directly influences where black pigment appears on the wings, shaping the butterfly’s color patterns in ways we hadn’t anticipated.
• The researchers delved deeper into how this RNA molecule functions during wing development. They found a perfect correlation between the RNA’s expression and the formation of black scales.
• They were amazed that this gene is activated precisely where the black scales will eventually develop. It truly acts like an evolutionary paintbrush, creating intricate patterns across various species.
• The team also studied this RNA in several other butterfly species, whose evolutionary paths diverged around 80 million years ago. They found that the RNA had evolved to control new patterns of dark pigments in these species.
• The consistent results from CRISPR mutants across different species show that this RNA gene is not a recent development but a key ancestral mechanism for controlling wing pattern diversity.
• Many scientists have examined this genetic trait in various butterfly species, and remarkably, this same RNA is consistently used—from longwing butterflies to monarchs and painted ladies. It’s clearly a crucial gene for the evolution of wing patterns.
• These findings challenge long-held beliefs about genetic regulation and open new possibilities for studying how visible traits evolve in animals.

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A recent study has challenged the traditional understanding of the evolutionary history of ion channels—proteins essential for electrical signaling in the nervous system. The research of rewriting the evolutionary history of ion channels in the nervous system demonstrates that the Shaker family of ion channels was present in microscopic single-celled organisms long before the common ancestor of all animals, predating the development of the nervous system. The study was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Date	August 13, 2024
Source	Penn State Department of Biology
Summary	New research reveals that certain ion channels existed before the earliest common ancestor of animals.

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A new study has revised the traditionally understood evolutionary history of certain proteins essential for electrical signaling in the nervous system. Led by researchers at Penn State, the study reveals that the well-known family of proteins—potassium ion channels in the Shaker family—existed in microscopic single-celled organisms long before the common ancestor of all animals. This finding challenges the previous belief that these ion channels evolved alongside the nervous system, suggesting instead that they were present before the nervous system emerged.

How Researchers are rewriting the evolutionary history of ion channels in the nervous system

• Often it is think of evolution as a linear progression towards increased complexity, but that’s not always the case in nature, For instance, it was believed that as animals evolved and the nervous system became more complex, ion channels developed and diversified accordingly. However, research indicates otherwise.
• Researchers previously discovered that the oldest living animals, those with simple nerve nets, have the greatest diversity of ion channels. This new finding adds to the growing evidence that many foundational components of the nervous system were already present in our protozoan ancestors—before the nervous system even existed.
• Ion channels are located in cell membranes and regulate the movement of charged particles, or ions, in and out of cells, creating the electrical signals that are fundamental to nervous system communication. The Shaker family of ion channels, found in a wide range of animals from humans to mice and fruit flies, specifically regulates potassium ion flow to terminate electrical signals known as action potentials. These channels operate similarly to transistors in computer chips, opening or closing in response to changes in the electric field.
• Much of the understanding of ion channel mechanics comes from studies on the Shaker family. Previously, it was believed these voltage-gated potassium channels were unique to animals, but now discovered that the genes coding for these ion channels are also present in several species of choanoflagellates, the closest living relatives of animals.
• Earlier, the researchers had searched for these genes in two species of choanoflagellates without success. In the current study, they expanded their search to 21 species and found evidence of Shaker family genes in three of them.
• Within the Shaker family, several subfamilies, or types, of ion channels are found across the animal kingdom. Recently discovered that the Shaker family genes in choanoflagellates are more closely related to types Kv2, Kv3, and Kv4. Researchers initially thought types 2 through 4 evolved more recently.
• Understanding of rewriting the evolutionary history of ion channels in the nervous system how these ion channels evolved not only enhances our knowledge of their function but may also have implications for treating disorders related to ion channel dysfunction, such as heart arrhythmias and epilepsy.

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A surprising discovery in bacteria is challenging our understanding of genomes and could provide valuable resources for developing new genetic therapies. Because bacteria encode hidden genes beyond their genome. This principle was believed to apply universally, from humans to bacteria.

Date	August 9, 2024
Source	Columbia University Irving Medical Center
Summary	A “loopy” discovery in bacteria is challenging core assumptions about genome’s structure and uncovering a potential source of material for innovative genetic therapies.

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• Scientists have long believed that genes are exclusively encoded within the linear structure of DNA, a blueprint meticulously preserved in chromosome However, a groundbreaking discovery challenges this fundamental assumption.
• Researchers at Columbia University have unveiled a surprising strategy employed by bacteria to generate functional genes outside their genome. These genes, existing independently of the chromosomal DNA, are essential for the bacteria’s survival, particularly in defense against viral attacks.
• This finding, described as “astonishing” and akin to “alien biology” by scientists, has already sparked significant attention.
• Researchers focused on a unique bacterial defense system involving an RNA molecule of unknown function and a reverse transcriptase enzyme, which synthesizes DNA from RNA.
• Unlike typical bacterial defense mechanisms that degrade viral DNA, this system defends by synthesizing DNA, a puzzling approach that caught the researchers’ interest.

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How bacteria encode hidden genes beyond their genome

• Researchers developed a technique to investigate this defense mechanism, discovering that the reverse transcriptase produces repetitive DNA sequences by repeatedly circling a looped section of the RNA molecule.
• Initially, the researchers thought their experiments were flawed or that the resulting DNA was meaningless. However, further investigation revealed that this DNA is actually a functional, free-floating, transient gene. The protein it encodes, named Neo, plays a vital role in protecting bacteria from viral infection.
• The potential for similar extrachromosomal genes in higher organisms, including humans, could revolutionize our understanding of genetics. Researchers is now searching for such genes in human cells, using this techniques.
• Given the many reverse transcriptase genes in the human genome with unknown functions, there is considerable potential for new biological discoveries.
• This research also holds promise for advancing gene-editing technologies. While CRISPR-based therapies are in clinical trials, the combination of CRISPR with reverse transcriptase could enhance genome editing capabilities.
• The reverse transcriptase responsible for creating Neo might be a superior tool for laboratory gene editing and the development of new therapies. Sternberg believes that bacteria may harbor many more such enzymes, offering new possibilities for biotechnological innovations.

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Over thousands of years, cavefish evolved to lose their vision, earning them the name “blind cavefish.” However, some blind cavefish marked with taste buds on the head and chin. In a recent study published in the journal Communications Biology, scientists at the University of Cincinnati determined when these taste buds start to appear outside the oral cavity.

Date	August 15, 2024
Source	University of Cincinnati
Summary	A biologist from the University of Cincinnati has studied blind cavefish, a species found in the cave ponds of Mexico. The research focused on the timeline for when these fish develop extra taste buds on their head and chin. The study revealed that this expansion of taste buds begins at around five months of age and continues as the fish mature into adulthood.

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How blind cavefish marked with taste buds on the head and chin

• The research focused on blind cavefish that evolved in cave ponds in northeastern Mexico. These fish are pale pink and nearly translucent compared to their silvery, surface-dwelling counterparts, which have large, round eyes giving them a perpetually surprised look. Despite these physical differences, both fish are considered the same species.
• Regression, such as the loss of eyesight and pigmentation, is a well-studied phenomenon, but the biological bases of constructive features are less well understood in the evolution and development of cave-dwelling vertebrates.
• In the 1960s, scientists discovered that certain populations of blind cavefish had extra taste buds on their head and chin. However, there was little follow-up on the developmental or genetic processes behind this unusual trait, according to researcher. To investigate when these extra taste buds appear research team studied the species Astyanax mexicanus, including two separate cavefish populations from the Pachon and Tinaja caves in northwestern Mexico, known for having additional taste buds.
• The research revealed that the number of taste buds in cavefish is similar to that of surface fish from birth until about five months of age. After this period, the taste buds begin to increase in number and appear on the head and chin, continuing to accumulate well into adulthood, around 18 months.
• Cavefish can live much longer than 18 months in both nature and captivity, and the researchers suspect that even more taste buds develop as the fish age. While the timing of taste bud appearance was comparable between the Pachon and Tinaja cavefish populations, there were differences in the density and timing of expansion, Gross noted. Another surprising finding was the genetic basis of this trait: Despite the complexity of this feature, it seems that the increased number of taste buds on the head is mainly controlled by just two regions of the genome.
• The increase in taste buds corresponds with the time cavefish stop consuming live prey and begin to pursue other food sources, such as bat guano, according to researcher. Interestingly, this expansion may also occur in caves without bat populations.
• The additional taste buds likely give cavefish a more refined sense of taste, which Gross believes is an adaptive trait. It remains unclear what the precise functional and adaptive relevance of this enhanced taste system is leading the team to begin new studies that expose the fish to different flavors like sour, sweet, and bitter.

In their quest to understand how marine algae produce their complex toxins, researchers have identified the largest protein produce algal toxins. This discovery not only sheds light on the biological processes algae use to create these intricate toxins but also reveals new methods for chemical assembly, potentially paving the way for innovative medicines and materials.

Date	August 9, 2024
Source	University of California – San Diego
Summary	The discovery of the biological machinery that algae have evolved to produce their intricate toxins also unveiled new methods for chemical assembly, which could lead to the development of new medicines and materials.

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In their quest to understand how marine algae produce complex toxins, scientists at UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography have identified the largest protein ever recorded in biology.

How Largest Protein Produce Algal Toxins

• The protein, named PKZILLA-1, was found while researchers were studying how the algae species Prymnesium parvum generates its toxin, which is responsible for massive fish die-offs. ‘This is the Mount Everest of proteins,’ said Bradley Moore, a marine chemist with joint appointments at Scripps Oceanography and the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, and senior author of a new study detailing the findings. ‘This broadens our understanding of what biology can achieve.’
• PKZILLA-1 is 25% larger than titin, the previous record-holder, which is found in human muscles and can reach 1 micron in length (0.0001 centimeter or 0.00004 inch).
• Published in Science and funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation, the study demonstrates that this enormous protein and another large, though not record-breaking, protein—PKZILLA-2—are essential for producing prymnesin, the large, complex molecule that constitutes the algae’s toxin.
• In addition to identifying the giant proteins responsible for prymnesin production, the research also uncovered exceptionally large genes that provide Prymnesium parvum with the instructions for making these proteins.
• Identifying the genes involved in prymnesin production could improve monitoring efforts for harmful algal blooms by enabling water testing to detect the genes rather than the toxins themselves.
• The discovery of PKZILLA-1 and PKZILLA-2 also reveals the algae’s complex cellular process for building these toxins, which have unique and intricate chemical structures. Understanding how these toxins are produced could benefit scientists seeking to synthesize new compounds for medical or industrial use.
• Prymnesium parvum, also known as golden algae, is a single-celled aquatic organism found worldwide in both freshwater and saltwater. Blooms of golden algae are associated with fish die-offs due to the prymnesin toxin, which damages the gills of fish and other aquatic animals.
• In 2022, a golden algae bloom caused the deaths of 500-1,000 tons of fish in the Oder River, which borders Poland and Germany.
• When the researchers completed the assembly of the PKZILLA proteins, they were astonished by their size. The PKZILLA-1 protein has a record-breaking mass of 4.7 megadaltons, while PKZILLA-2 is also very large at 3.2 megadaltons.
• Titin, the previous record-holder, can be up to 3.7 megadaltons—about 90 times larger than a typical protein. After additional tests confirmed that golden algae actually produce these giant proteins in nature, the team set out to determine if the proteins were involved in the production of the prymnesin toxin.
• The PKZILLA proteins are enzymes, meaning they initiate chemical reactions, and the team painstakingly mapped out the 239 chemical reactions driven by the two enzymes using pens and notepads.

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