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Paralysis is a complex and life-altering condition that affects millions of individuals worldwide. It manifests in various forms, from localized muscle weakness to complete loss of motor function, and can result from a myriad of causes. But now there is a light of hope from the recent research that paralysis can be recovered in near future.

Part I: Unmasking the Causes of Paralysis

1. Spinal Cord Injuries (SCIs): Among the most common causes of paralysis are traumatic spinal cord injuries. These injuries often result from accidents, falls, or sports-related incidents, and they can lead to partial or complete paralysis depending on the location and severity of the damage.
2. Stroke: Strokes, whether ischemic or hemorrhagic, can disrupt blood flow to the brain, causing brain cell damage and paralysis. Depending on the affected area of the brain, stroke survivors may experience paralysis on one side of their body, known as hemiplegia.
3. Neurological Disorders: Conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Guillain-Barré syndrome can disrupt the normal functioning of the nervous system, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
4. Spinal Cord Diseases: Non-traumatic spinal cord diseases, such as transverse myelitis and spinal cord tumors, can cause paralysis by interfering with the transmission of signals between the brain and the body.
5. Infections and Inflammation: Infections like polio and certain types of encephalitis can lead to muscle weakness and paralysis. Additionally, inflammatory conditions like autoimmune disorders may attack the nervous system, resulting in paralysis.

Part II: The Multifaceted Effects of Paralysis

1. Physical Impact: Paralysis profoundly affects an individual’s physical abilities. Loss of mobility and muscle control can lead to complications such as muscle atrophy, joint contractures, and pressure sores. Individuals with paralysis often require specialized medical care and assistive devices to maintain their health and independence.
2. Emotional Toll: The emotional impact of paralysis is significant. Feelings of grief, anger, and depression are common reactions to the loss of mobility and independence. Coping with the challenges of daily life can be emotionally draining, and mental health support is crucial for individuals with paralysis.
3. Social Challenges: Paralysis can disrupt one’s social life and relationships. Stigmatization and societal barriers can lead to feelings of isolation. Reintegrating into the community and maintaining relationships may require adaptability and support.
4. Financial Strain: The costs associated with paralysis, including medical expenses, assistive devices, and home modifications, can place a substantial financial burden on individuals and their families. Access to affordable healthcare and financial resources is vital.
5. Rehabilitation and Hope: Rehabilitation plays a pivotal role in the lives of those with paralysis. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and assistive technologies can enhance functionality and improve quality of life. With time, determination, and the right support, many individuals with paralysis regain some degree of independence.

Read Also: 22/09/2023- How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without Central Brain

The Research By Which Paralysis Can Be Recovered

Their earlier study in 2018, published in Nature, had already identified a treatment method that stimulated the regrowth of axons (the minuscule fibers responsible for connecting nerve cells and facilitating communication) following spinal cord injuries in rodents. However, despite successfully regenerating axons across severe spinal cord lesions, achieving functional recovery remained a formidable challenge by which paralysis can be recovered.

The Collaborators of Research Team

“In a recent study involving mice, a collaborative team of researchers from UCLA, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, and Harvard University has made a significant breakthrough in the quest to restore functional activity after spinal cord injuries by which paralysis can be recovered. The neuroscientists discovered a vital element in the process: the targeted regeneration of specific neurons back to their natural destinations proved to be effective in promoting recovery, while haphazard regrowth yielded no positive results by which paralysis can be recovered..

The Research Published in Journal Science

In their most recent study, which was published in Science this week, the team aimed to ascertain whether directing the regrowth of axons from specific neuronal subpopulations to their natural destinations could result in meaningful functional restoration after spinal cord injuries in mice. They employed advanced genetic analysis to pinpoint groups of nerve cells that contributed to improved walking ability after partial spinal cord injuries by which paralysis can be recovered..

Topic of The Research

Their findings revealed that merely regenerating axons from these nerve cells across the spinal cord lesion without precise guidance had no impact on functional recovery. However, when the approach was refined to include the use of chemical signals to attract and direct the regrowth of these axons to their natural target region in the lumbar spinal cord, they observed significant improvements in the mice’s ability to walk, even in cases of complete spinal cord injury by which paralysis can be recovered.

But What is axon?

In the intricate world of neuroscience, axons are the unsung heroes, silently transmitting signals throughout the nervous system. These long, slender projections play a pivotal role in enabling us to move, think, and feel. In this article, we embark on a journey to unravel the fascinating world of axons, exploring what they are, how they work, and why they are essential to our existence.

The Anatomy of Axons

Axons are an integral part of neurons, the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system. Neurons consist of three primary components:

1. Cell Body (Soma): The cell body houses the neuron’s nucleus and other vital organelles, serving as the neuron’s control center.
2. Dendrites: These branch-like structures extend from the cell body and receive incoming signals from neighboring neurons.
3. Axon: The axon is a long, thin extension of the neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

How Axons Transmit Information

Axons are the information superhighways of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting signals, or action potentials, from one neuron to another. Here’s how it works:

1. Electrochemical Signaling: Neurons communicate through electrochemical signaling. When a neuron receives a signal via its dendrites, it generates an electrical impulse known as an action potential.
2. Propagation of Action Potentials: The action potential travels along the axon like a wave. This propagation is made possible by the axon’s specialized membrane, which contains ion channels that allow ions to flow in and out, creating an electrical charge.
3. Myelin Sheath: Many axons are insulated by a fatty substance called myelin, which acts like an electrical insulator and speeds up the transmission of action potentials. Myelinated axons appear white, giving rise to the term “white matter” in the brain.
4. Synaptic Transmission: At the end of the axon, it branches into numerous tiny structures called axon terminals. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse, the junction between neurons. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron, transmitting the signal.

Diversity in Axons

Axons come in various shapes and sizes, reflecting their diverse functions within the nervous system. Some axons are incredibly long, spanning from the spinal cord to the toes, while others are short and confined to local circuits. Neurons with longer axons tend to relay signals over longer distances.

Axons can also differ in their degree of myelination. While some axons are entirely covered in myelin, others have periodic gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier. This nodal arrangement allows for a faster and more energy-efficient propagation of action potentials.

The Importance of Axons

The significance of axons cannot be overstated. They are the conduits through which our thoughts are transmitted, our muscles are controlled, and our senses are perceived. The intricate network of axons in the brain and spinal cord forms the basis for all our cognitive and motor functions.

Axons are also the targets of various neurological diseases and injuries. Conditions like multiple sclerosis, where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, can disrupt the transmission of signals along axons. Spinal cord injuries can sever axons, leading to loss of sensation and motor function.

Insights of The Research

Dr. Michael Sofroniew, a professor of neurobiology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and a senior author of the study, commented, “Our study offers crucial insights into the complexities of axon regeneration and the prerequisites for achieving meaningful neurological recovery after spinal cord injuries. It underscores the importance not only of regenerating axons across lesions but also actively guiding them to reach their natural target regions to attain substantial neurological restoration” and by which paralysis can be recovered.

Application of This Research

The researchers posit that understanding how to re-establish the connections of specific neuronal subpopulations to their natural destinations holds great promise for developing therapies aimed at restoring neurological functions in larger animals and eventually in humans. However, they acknowledge the complexity of promoting regeneration over longer distances in non-rodent species, which may require intricate spatial and temporal strategies. Nevertheless, they conclude that applying the principles outlined in their research “will provide a blueprint for achieving meaningful repair of the injured spinal cord and may expedite recovery after other types of central nervous system injuries and diseases” and by which paralysis can be recovered.

The Research Team

The research team included scientists from various institutions, including the NeuroX Institute, School of Life Sciences at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), the Department of Neurosurgery at Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne (UNIL), the Wyss Center for Bio and Neuroengineering, the Department of Clinical Neuroscience at Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne, the Departments of Bioengineering, Chemistry, and Biochemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles, the Bertarelli Platform for Gene Therapy at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, the Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, the M. Kirby Neurobiology Center at the Department of Neurology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, and the Department of Neurobiology at the David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles.

Financial Support of This Research

This research received financial support from various organizations, including the Defitech Foundation, Wings for Life, Riders4Riders, Wyss Center for Bio and Neuroengineering, Swiss National Science Foundation, Morton Cure Paralysis Foundation, ALARME Foundation, and the Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Foundation, among others. The researchers also acknowledged the resources.

A recent investigation reveals that mechanical harm to the cell membrane could trigger cellular senescence in human cells. The delicate membrane enveloping our cells measures a mere 5 nanometers in thickness, equivalent to just 1/20th of a soap bubble’s width. Physiological processes such as muscle contraction and tissue injury readily subject cells to damage. To counter such challenges, cells possess mechanisms capable of partially repairing membrane damage.

Date:	February 22, 2024
Source:	Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) Graduate University
Summary:	Scientists have found that injury to the cell membrane accelerates cellular senescence, also known as cell aging.

If you want to read more such biology news then click these news: How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without The Central Brain, Now Paralysis Can Be Recovered By The Grace Of New Research, Why The Spread of Viruses is Increasing Now.

Cell Aging or Cellular Senescence Definition:

Cancerous cells exhibit unrestricted division. Conversely, non-cancerous normal cells have a finite capacity for division, typically around 50 times, after which division ceases irreversibly, leading the cells into a state referred to as cellular senescence.

Senescent cells remain metabolically active. However, unlike young and healthy cells, they secrete a variety of proteins that enhance immune responses in both nearby tissues and distant organs.

Other Causes of Cell Aging :

The most well-established trigger for cellular senescence is recurrent cell division. Various other stresses can also prompt cellular senescence in experimental conditions, including DNA damage, activation of oncogenes, and alterations in epigenetic patterns.

The enduring belief within the research community was that diverse stresses lead to cellular senescence primarily through the initiation of the DNA damage response.

Effects of Cell Aging:

This mechanism can bring about both advantageous and disadvantageous alterations in our body, such as hastening wound healing, promoting cancer, and contributing to aging.

Over the past decade, several investigations have documented the presence of senescent cells in animals, including humans, and have demonstrated that eliminating these cells can revitalize bodily functions in experimental animals.

Nevertheless, the cause of cell senescence in the human body continues to be a subject of debate.

Difference Between Older and Newer Thoughts:

Previously, it was understood that mechanical damage to the cell membrane would result in two basic cellular responses: either recovery or cell death. However, this study revealed a previously unrecognized third possibility: cellular senescence.

Level of Damage:

The slight damage to the cell membrane is readily fixed, enabling uninterrupted cell division.

However, moderate damage to the cell membrane transforms the cells into senescent cells several days later, despite apparent successful membrane resealing.

Severe cell membrane damage leads to cell death.

Cellular Senescence Defining A Path Forward:

Yet, the researchers revealed that cellular senescence induced by cell membrane damage operates through an alternative pathway involving calcium ions and the tumor suppressor gene p53. These discoveries could aid in the development of strategies aimed at promoting healthy aging in the future.

Thoughts of The Researchers:

The determining factor for cell destiny lies in the degree of damage and the subsequent influx of calcium ions.
“When I embarked on this project, my goal was simply to comprehend the repair processes of the injured cell membrane,” reminisces Professor Keiko Kono, leader of the Membranology unit and senior investigator of this study, which engaged numerous members from the unit, such as Kojiro Suda, Yohsuke Moriyama, Nurhanani Razali, and collaborators. “Surprisingly, we found that cell membrane damage, in a way, alters cell destiny.”

This study unveils a novel understanding of how cell membrane damage can drive cellular senescence through distinct mechanisms involving calcium ion influx and the activation of tumor suppressor genes. These findings underscore the intricate relationship between cellular integrity and aging processes.

Jellyfish are captivating creatures of the sea, known for their graceful, undulating movements and delicate, translucent bodies. Yet, beneath their seemingly simple exterior lies a complex mystery: they lack a central brain, despite that Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain, yet they exhibit behaviors that suggest a capacity to learn from past experiences.

Scientists, in a groundbreaking discovery published on September 22 in the journal Current Biology, have revealed that Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain, specifically the Caribbean box jellyfish (Tripedalia cystophora), can acquire knowledge from past experiences, much like humans, mice, and flies. This finding challenges the conventional belief that sophisticated learning necessitates a centralized brain and provides insight into the evolutionary origins of learning and memory.

Anatomy of The Jellyfish

Jellyfish belong to the phylum Cnidaria and come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Their anatomy is relatively simple, consisting of a gelatinous, umbrella-shaped bell and trailing tentacles armed with stinging cells called nematocysts. These stinging cells are used for hunting prey and for defense against potential predators. However, what sets jellyfish apart from other creatures is their absence of a central nervous system, a brain, or a complex network of neurons found in most other animals.

Despite their small size, these seemingly uncomplicated jellyfish possess a complex visual system comprising 24 eyes embedded within their bell-shaped bodies. In their habitat, which consists of mangrove swamps, these creatures rely on their vision to navigate through murky waters and avoid underwater tree roots while hunting for prey. The researchers demonstrated that these jellyfish can develop the ability to evade obstacles through associative learning, a process wherein organisms establish mental connections between sensory stimuli and their corresponding behaviors.

Decoding the Learning Abilities To Know How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without The Central Brain

For a long time, scientists believed that jellyfish relied solely on instinctual, reflexive behaviors and lacked the capacity to learn or adapt to their environment. After all, how could an organism with no central processing unit possibly display learning behaviors? Then how Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain?

However, recent studies have challenged this notion. Researchers have discovered that jellyfish exhibit behaviors that can be interpreted as learning from past experiences. One of the most remarkable examples of this is the Cassiopea jellyfish, also known as the “upside-down jellyfish.”

Cassiopea jellyfish are known to associate certain tactile stimuli with positive or negative experiences. In laboratory experiments, they have been observed to preferentially pulsate and swim towards surfaces that offer a soft, sandy texture while avoiding surfaces that are too rough or uncomfortable. This behavior implies a capacity for environmental learning and adaptation.

The Role of a Simple Nervous System

Although jellyfish lack a central brain, they do possess a simple nerve net. This nerve net is a diffuse network of interconnected neurons that spans their entire body, allowing for basic sensory perception and signal transmission. While this neural network is far less complex than the brains of vertebrates, it appears to be sufficient for certain types of learning.

One hypothesis is that jellyfish rely on a form of distributed intelligence, where information is processed collectively by the nerve net, rather than centralized in a single brain. This distributed processing allows them to adapt to their surroundings and make decisions based on sensory input that’s why Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain.

Environmental Learning

Jellyfish spend their lives drifting through the ocean, encountering a variety of environmental factors, from water currents and temperature changes to food availability and potential threats. Their ability to learn from these experiences is crucial for survival and reproductive success.

For example, if a jellyfish repeatedly encounters a specific water temperature associated with an abundance of prey, it may develop a preference for that temperature range. Likewise, if it encounters a predator or a potentially harmful environment, it may learn to avoid those conditions by this ability Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain.

Implications for Science and Technology

The discovery of learning abilities in jellyfish challenges our understanding of intelligence and cognition. While these creatures may not possess the same cognitive complexity as humans or some other animals, they demonstrate that rudimentary forms of learning can occur without a centralized brain.

Read Also: 21/09/2023- Now Paralysis Can Be Recovered By The Grace Of New Research.

Experiment: How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without Central Brain

Jan Bielecki from Kiel University, Germany, the first author of the study, emphasizes the significance of leveraging the animal’s natural behaviors to effectively teach them new skills. He states that this approach allows the animal to reach its full learning potential.

To conduct their experiments, the research team set up a circular tank with gray and white stripes to mimic the jellyfish’s natural environment, with gray stripes representing distant mangrove roots. During the 7.5-minute observation period, they noticed that initially, the jellyfish swam close to the seemingly distant gray stripes, frequently colliding with them. However, by the end of the experiment, the jellyfish had increased its average distance from the tank wall by approximately 50%, quadrupled the number of successful maneuvers to avoid collisions, and reduced its contact with the wall by half. These findings suggest that jellyfish can learn from their experiences, particularly through visual and mechanical stimuli.

Anders Garm, the senior author from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, highlights the importance of studying simpler nervous systems in jellyfish to gain insights into complex structures and behaviors.

Aim of The Researchers After The Discovery how Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain

The researchers then aimed to uncover the underlying mechanism of associative learning in jellyfish by isolating the visual sensory centers known as rhopalia, each of which contains six eyes and generates pacemaker signals that control the jellyfish’s pulsing motion, which increases in frequency when the animal maneuvers around obstacles.

When the researchers exposed the stationary rhopalium to moving gray bars to simulate the jellyfish’s approach to objects, it did not respond to light gray bars, interpreting them as distant. However, after training the rhopalium with weak electric stimulation in response to the approaching bars, it began generating signals to dodge obstacles when exposed to light gray bars.

These electric stimulations mimicked the mechanical stimuli of collisions, indicating that both visual and mechanical cues are necessary for associative learning in jellyfish, with the rhopalium serving as a crucial learning center.

Future Plan of The Research Team

The research team’s future plans include delving into the cellular interactions of jellyfish nervous systems to unravel the intricacies of memory formation. They also aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of how the bell’s mechanical sensor contributes to the animal’s associative learning.

Anders Garm points out the astonishing speed at which these animals learn, which rivals the pace of more advanced creatures. This suggests that even the simplest nervous systems possess the capacity for advanced learning, potentially representing a fundamental cellular mechanism that emerged at the early stages of nervous system evolution.

This research could have implications for fields such as robotics and artificial intelligence. Understanding how jellyfish process and respond to sensory input without a central brain could inspire new approaches to designing more adaptive and efficient robotic systems.

Jellyfish, with their mesmerizing appearance and seemingly simple biology, continue to surprise us with their capacity to learn from past experiences despite the absence of a central brain. The study of their unique form of intelligence opens new doors in our understanding of the diversity of cognitive processes in the animal kingdom.

Why fasting is not always good? While fasting, the body undergoes a shift in its energy source and utilization, transitioning from ingested calories to utilizing its own fat reserves. Yet, beyond this alteration in fuel sources, there remains a limited understanding of how the body reacts to extended periods of fasting and the potential health consequences, whether advantageous or detrimental. Emerging methodologies enabling the measurement of numerous proteins circulating in our blood offer a chance to comprehensively investigate the molecular adjustments to fasting in humans with precision and thoroughness.

Date:	March 1, 2024
Source:	Queen Mary University of London
Summary:	“Study identifies multi-organ response to seven days without food.”

Fasting is not always good because recent discoveries indicate that prolonged fasting induces significant systemic changes throughout the body, affecting multiple organs. These findings not only suggest health benefits extending beyond mere weight loss but also indicate that any potentially significant health-related alterations seem to manifest only after a fasting period of three days or longer.

If you want to read recent biology news then click here: Cell Membrane Damage Promotes Cellular Senescence.

Experiment:

In the experiment of fasting is not always good, a group of researchers monitored 12 healthy volunteers who participated in a seven-day water-only fasting regimen. Throughout the fasting period, the volunteers were closely observed on a daily basis to document changes in the levels of approximately 3,000 proteins in their blood, both before, during, and after the fast. By pinpointing the proteins involved in the body’s response, the researchers were able to anticipate potential health outcomes of prolonged fasting by incorporating genetic data from extensive studies.

Result:

As anticipated, in the experiment of fasting is not always good, the researchers noted a transition in the body’s energy sources, shifting from glucose to stored body fat, within the initial two to three days of fasting. On average, the volunteers experienced a reduction of 5.7 kg in both fat and lean mass. Upon resuming eating after three days of fasting, the weight loss was sustained, with the loss of lean mass nearly completely reversed, while the reduction in fat mass persisted.

Thoughts of The Researchers:

The experiment of fasting is not always good, researchers have delivered their opinion:

Claudia Langenberg, Director of Queen Mary’s Precision Health University Research Institute (PHURI), remarked:

“For the first time, we have the ability to observe molecular-level changes occurring throughout the body during fasting. When conducted safely, fasting proves to be an effective strategy for weight loss. Diets incorporating fasting, such as intermittent fasting, claim to offer health benefits beyond weight loss. Our findings indeed support the notion of health benefits associated with fasting beyond mere weight loss. However, these benefits were discernible only after a prolonged period of three days of complete caloric restriction, which is later than previously anticipated.”

Maik Pietzner, Health Data Chair of PHURI and co-lead of the Computational Medicine Group at the Berlin Institute of Health at Charite, added:

“Our research has laid the groundwork for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the age-old practice of fasting for certain conditions. While fasting may hold therapeutic potential for certain ailments, it may not always be a feasible option for patients dealing with poor health. We hope that our discoveries can offer insights into the reasons behind the efficacy of fasting in specific scenarios, thereby guiding the development of treatments that are more accessible to patients.”

FAQ on Fasting is Not Always Good: