Biology Research News

In the new paper published in Ecology and Evolution, researchers describe how they were observing small groups of critically endangered diademed sifaka lemurs at Betampona Strict Nature Reserve when the predator struck. That means Lemurs are under threat because one vulnerable species stalks another.

According to research conducted by Washington University in St. Louis and the University of Antananarivo in Madagascar, the complexity of this situation can increase notably when predation takes place in a habitat that is isolated or of poor quality.

Date	April 19, 2024
Source	Washington University in St. Louis
Summary	Researchers investigating critically endangered lemurs in Madagascar were faced with this challenging reality when they observed attacks on lemurs perpetrated by another vulnerable species known as a fosa.

If you want to know recent biology news like One Vulnerable Species Stalks Another, then read here: Specific Genomic Changes in the Monkeypox Virus Associated with Their Transmissibility, Better View of Living Bacteria with New Mid-Infrared Nanoscopy, Why Green-to-Red Transformation of Euglena gracilis is in News.

About Lemurs:

In the heart of Madagascar’s lush forests dwells a majestic creature, the diademed sifaka lemur (Propithecus diadema).

The diademed sifaka stands out among its lemur relatives with its distinctive black and white fur, reminiscent of a regal crown adorning its head. Their long limbs and slender bodies allow them to gracefully traverse the treetops with unparalleled agility. Their expressive amber-colored eyes seem to reflect the mysteries of the forest they call home.

Diademed sifakas are highly social animals, living in close-knit family groups led by a dominant male and female. Their diet primarily consists of leaves, fruits, flowers, and occasionally seeds, providing them with the essential nutrients needed to thrive in their forest habitat.

See The Picture of Lemur Here

About Fossas:

With sleek bodies and elongated tails, Fosas (also known as Fossas, Crytoprocta ferox) exhibit numerous feline characteristics. They excel in climbing and are often likened to miniature cougars, although they belong to the weasel family.

The fosa is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, facing a significant risk of extinction, much like nearly all of its lemur prey. Fossas also feed on other small creatures such as birds and rodents.

Fossas are adept hunters, employing stealth in their approach. Researchers have primarily deduced the dietary habits of fosas by analyzing bones and other remnants found in their excrement.

See The Picture of Fossa Here

Research News: One Vulnerable Species Stalks Another

Research	Observation	Conclusion
Researchers were conducting their daily behavioral observations when they came across a very unusual sight, a predation attempt by a fossa, which is the biggest predator in Madagascar. While there are other smaller carnivores in Madagascar, none possess the size necessary to prey on adult diademed sifakas, as they rank among the largest lemurs. The number of predators capable of such an act is quite limited.	They observed that a female diademed sifaka, which we were tracking following the initial attack, didn’t flee a great distance. Instead, she remained motionless and alert, keeping a watchful eye on the fosa. Furthermore, the researchers recounted additional instances over a span of 19 months of observation when fosas seemed to stalk lemurs but were unsuccessful in capturing them as prey.	The combination of predation, low reproductive rates, and the possibility of high inbreeding within the lemur population at Betampona may significantly influence the species’ survival in this area.

Through their research, they’ve been able to uncover issues such as inbreeding and other factors that likely contribute to the diademed sifaka population’s inability to thrive at Betampona, and Fossa too, needs conservation efforts because Lemurs are under threat when one vulnerable species stalks another.

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FAQ:

Collaborative efforts between Mount Sinai scientists and researchers from the Carlos III Health Institute (ISCIII) in Madrid, Spain, have successfully pinpointed and characterized specific modifications within the monkeypox virus genome. Specific genomic changes in the monkeypox virus associated with their transmissibility, virus potentially correspond to variations in the virus’s ability to spread, as observed during the outbreak in 2022. The findings of this research were recently published on April 18 in Nature Communications.

Date	April 19, 2024
Source	Mount Sinai School of Medicine
Summary	Researchers have pinpointed and identified modifications within the genome of the monkeypox virus that may be linked to the observed alterations in the virus’s ability to spread during the 2022 outbreak.

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What is Monkeypox Virus:

The Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a type of double-stranded DNA virus capable of infecting both animals and humans. It leads to a condition called mpox, characterized by symptoms such as fever, swollen lymph nodes, and a rash.

While many cases of mpox are mild and resolve without intervention, the condition can be extremely painful and may result in permanent scarring.

See The Structure of Monkeypox Virus Here

Specific Genomic Changes in the Monkeypox Virus:

With increased circulation of the virus in humans, the risk of a more transmissible variant emerging and potentially becoming endemic in the human population grows.

Gustavo Palacios, PhD, a Professor of Microbiology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and one of the study’s senior authors, emphasizes the importance of investigating transmission conditions when significant changes in the fundamental epidemiological characteristics of a viral pathogen such as monkeypox occur. He highlights the ongoing rise in cases in Africa and the 2022 epidemic as clear warning signals that warrant renewed attention in specific genomic changes in the monkeypox virus.

Research News:

Experiment	Observation	Conclusion
Researchers examined samples from 46 patients infected with MPXV, whose diagnosis and sequencing were conducted at the ISCIII during the onset of the 2022 mpox outbreak. The team conducted comprehensive sequencing of each patient’s entire monkeypox virus genome to explore potential correlations between genomic variations across different sequence groups and epidemiological connections linked to the virus’s evolution, transmission, and infection. The advanced complete genome sequencing utilized two sophisticated sequencing technologies: single-molecule long-read sequencing (to cover highly repetitive regions) and deep short sequencing reads (to ensure accuracy and depth).	The research team identified recurring genomic changes in regions of the genome possibly associated with viral adaptation. These specific sites likely influence viral replication, adaptability, and routes of entry and exit. These alterations are situated in regions termed low complexity genomic areas, which are challenging to sequence and analyze, explaining why they were previously overlooked.	By elucidating the genomic modifications within these repetitive sequences and their connection to vital viral functions, researchers offer a plausible explanation for the increased transmissibility observed during the 2022 mpox outbreak.

Specific genomic changes in the monkeypox virus, emphasizes that gaining a deeper comprehension of the factors facilitating viral transmission and influencing clinical manifestations will pave the way for the development of more efficient prevention and treatment approaches.

If you want to read more such biology news: Why Fasting is Not Always Good for Your Health- Biology News, Cell Membrane Damage Promotes Cellular Senescence.

FAQ:

The cellular waste management system, formally known as autophagy, plays a vital role in maintaining cellular health and homeostasis. Within the bustling environment of a cell, autophagy serves as the cleanup crew, responsible for removing damaged or unwanted components to ensure the cell’s survival and functionality where proteasome perform an important role.

Date	April 12, 2024
Source	Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Summary	Scientists studied nerve cells cultivated in laboratories and mice suggest that the proteasome’s role may extend far beyond its conventional cell cleaning functions.

If you want to read recent biology news then click here: Cell Membrane Damage Promotes Cellular Senescence.

Experiment	Observation	Conclusion
Seth S. Margolis, Ph.D., associate professor of biological chemistry at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, studying nerve cells grown in the lab and mice.	Seth S. Margolis said “Neurons live next to each other for a long time, and they need ways to communicate with each other about what they’re doing and who they are.”	Proteasomes located within the neuronal membrane could assist in refining this communication process within cells.

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Cellular Waste Management System:

Just like a city needs efficient garbage disposal to keep its streets clean, cells have their own waste management system to ensure proper functioning. The cellular waste management system primarily revolves around a process called autophagy, which literally means “self-eating.” Autophagy is a highly regulated mechanism through which cells degrade and recycle their own components. It serves as a quality control mechanism, ensuring that damaged or unnecessary cellular components are removed and recycled.

Proteasome:

One of the key players in the cellular waste management system is the proteasome, often referred to as the cell’s garbage disposal. The proteasome is a large protein complex responsible for breaking down unwanted proteins into smaller fragments. These protein fragments are then recycled to generate new proteins or used as building blocks for other cellular processes.

See The Structure of Proteasome Here

Additional Functions of Proteasome:

The outcomes of their investigations, published on April 12, 2024 in Cell Reports, indicate that proteasomes might aid specialized neurons in detecting the surrounding environment, transmitting signals to one another, and potentially distinguishing between sensations of pain and itch. This discovery could offer insights into these sensory processes and identify novel targets for addressing pain and other sensory-related issues.

History of the Experiment:

“Proteasomes are more complicated and detailed than initially perceived,” states Margolis. He and his team initially discovered proteasomes within the plasma membranes of neurons in the central nervous system of mice in 2017, which they termed neuronal membrane proteasomes. Since then, they have been investigating how these specialized proteasomes facilitate communication, or crosstalk, among neurons.

Initially, Margolis focused on the central nervous system, which comprises the brain and spinal cord. However, he later collaborated with neurobiologist Eric Villalón Landeros, Ph.D., a postdoctoral fellow in Margolis’ laboratory at Johns Hopkins, whose research is centered on the peripheral nervous system. This network of neurons extends throughout the body, closer to the skin, and is responsible for capturing sensory information from the environment.

Together, Margolis and Villalon Landeros pondered whether proteasomes could also be present in peripheral neurons and, if so, what functions they might serve.

FAQs:

With the help of new mid-infrared nanoscopy, the chemical images captured of the interior of bacteria are 30 times sharper compared to those obtained using conventional mid-infrared microscopes.

Enhanced clarity in viewing samples at a smaller scale offers valuable support across various research domains, such as the study of infectious diseases, while also paving the path for the advancement of increasingly precise mid-infrared-based imaging technologies in the future.

Date	April 17, 2024
Source	University of Tokyo
Summary	A team has developed an enhanced mid-infrared microscope, facilitating the observation of internal structures within living bacteria at the nanometer scale. This new mid-infrared nanoscopy generated images at a resolution of 120 nanometers, marking a thirtyfold enhancement compared to the resolution typically achieved by conventional mid-infrared microscopes, according to the researchers.

If you want to read recent biology news then read here: Cell Membrane Damage Promotes Cellular Senescence.

What is Mid-Infrared Nanoscopy:

1. Mid-infrared nanoscopy, a cutting-edge imaging technique, enables scientists to visualize objects and structures at the nanometer scale, far beyond the limits of conventional optical microscopy.
2. This breakthrough technology relies on the unique properties of mid-infrared light, which penetrates deeper into samples and interacts with molecular vibrations, providing rich biochemical information.
3. One of the key advantages of mid-infrared nanoscopy is its exceptional spatial resolution. By leveraging advanced techniques such as synthetic aperture and apertureless scanning, researchers can achieve resolutions on the order of tens of nanometers, revealing details that were previously invisible.

See The Structure of Mid-Infrared Microscope Here

Research News:

Experiment	Observation	Conclusion
1. The team employed a method called “synthetic aperture,” which involves merging multiple images captured from different illuminated angles to produce a clearer composite image. 2. Typically, a sample is positioned between two lenses, yet these lenses inadvertently absorb some of the mid-infrared light. 3. To address this challenge, the researchers positioned the sample, consisting of bacteria (E. coli and Rhodococcus jostii RHA1 in this case), on a silicon plate capable of reflecting visible light while transmitting infrared light. 4. This approach permitted the use of a single lens, enhancing the illumination of the sample with mid-infrared light and resulting in a more detailed image.	Researchers observe the intracellular structures of bacteria with a remarkable clarity.	The researchers achieved a spatial resolution of 120 nanometers, equivalent to 0.12 microns. This remarkable level of resolution represents an approximate thirtyfold improvement compared to conventional mid-infrared microscopy.

Comparison of Mid-Infrared Nanoscopy with Other Microscopes:

Fluorescent Microscopes	Electron Microscopes	Mid-Infrared Microscopes
Super-resolution fluorescent microscopes necessitate the labeling of specimens with fluorescence, a process that can occasionally pose toxicity risks to samples. Prolonged light exposure during observation can also result in sample bleaching, rendering them unusable.	Similarly, electron microscopes offer exceptional detail; however, samples must be placed in a vacuum, prohibiting the study of live samples.	In contrast, mid-infrared microscopy offers the advantage of providing both chemical and structural insights into live cells without the need for staining or causing damage to them. Yet, its application in biological research has been constrained due to its relatively limited resolution capacity.

Professor Takuro Ideguchi from the Institute for Photon Science and Technology at the University of Tokyo said that we are confident in our ability to further enhance the technique of mid-infrared nanoscopy in multiple aspects. By employing superior lenses and shorter wavelengths of visible light, we anticipate achieving spatial resolutions below 100 nanometers. With enhanced clarity, our aim is to investigate a diverse range of cell samples, addressing both fundamental and applied biomedical challenges.

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The green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis occurs when the organism is exposed to certain stimuli, such as intense red light and specific nutrient-rich mediums. This green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis is primarily attributed to changes in the production and accumulation of pigments within the cells, particularly carotenoids, which impart the distinctive red coloration.

Date	April 15, 2024
Source	Tokyo University of Science
Summary	Transforming Euglena gracilis from green to red utilizing bonito source and intense crimson illumination.

If you want to read recent biology news then read here: Cell Membrane Damage Promotes Cellular Senescence.

Euglena gracilis:

• Euglena gracilis, a unicellular organism, found in freshwater environments worldwide, this single-celled marvel possesses characteristics that make it a subject of fascination for scientists and researchers alike.
• Euglena gracilis appears as a tiny, elongated cell, typically ranging from 15 to 500 micrometers in length. Its distinctive feature is the presence of a flagellum, a whip-like appendage that propels it through water, enabling it to move with remarkable agility.
• Contained within its cell is a specialized organelle called a chloroplast, which contains chlorophyll—a pigment crucial for capturing light energy.
• Despite its microscopic size, Euglena gracilis packs a nutritional punch. This unicellular organism is rich in protein, containing all essential amino acids, making it a complete protein source comparable to animal products.
• Additionally, Euglena gracilis is a good source of vitamins, including vitamin A, vitamin C, and various B vitamins, essential for overall health and well-being.
• It also contains Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidant properties.

See The Structure of Euglena gracilis Here

Factors of Green-to-Red Transformation of Euglena gracilis:

• Researchers have identified several factors that influence the green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis. Intense red light within specific wavelengths triggers a series of biochemical reactions within the cells, leading to the synthesis and accumulation of carotenoids, including astaxanthin and β-carotene.
• Additionally, the composition of the culture medium plays a crucial role green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis, with nutrient-rich mediums, such as those derived from bonito stock or tomato juice, providing the necessary resources for enhanced pigment production.

Study:

In a research paper released in 2023, a team of researchers from TUS unveiled an approach to effectively cultivate E. gracilis in a cost-effective medium, whether solid or liquid, derived from tomato juice, commonly utilized for bacterial growth. Now, in a subsequent investigation, the scientists have delved into a promising methodology to enhance the production of carotenoids in cultured E. gracilis, elevating its nutritional value.

Research Team:

This study of green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis was Co-authored by Dr. Kengo Suzuki from Euglena Co., Ltd., alongside Professor Tatsuya Tomo and Professor Eiji Tokunaga from TUS, this latest study was featured in Volume 13, Issue 4 of the Plants journal, released on February 12, 2024.

Research News:

Experiment	Observation	Conclusion
The team conducted a series of experiments on numerous batches of cultured E. gracilis. They subjected the cultures to varying wavelengths (or colors) and intensities of light to observe a “reddening reaction,” a distinctive indicator of increased carotenoid production observed in numerous plant species. Additionally, they explored a novel culture medium derived from bonito stock, a soup base extracted from Katsuobushi, a traditional Japanese dish crafted from smoked bonito fish.	The research team discovered that intense red-light exposure within the range of 605-660 nm induced a reddening response in E. gracilis cultivated in bonito stock. Additionally, they analyzed the chemical compositions of the cultures using high-performance liquid chromatography, examining both the culture as a whole and individual cells.	These investigations conclded that red-hued cells not only exhibited a substantial concentration of diadinoxanthin, the predominant carotenoid in E. gracilis, but also synthesized an unidentified xanthophyll-type carotenoid. Furthermore, the team observed that cultures cultivated in bonito stock displayed accelerated growth and achieved greater densities compared to those grown on standard media, potentially resulting in increased diversity or quantities of carotenoids.

The findings of this research on the green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis hold the potential to lay the groundwork for a novel and readily scalable method for cultivating nutrient-rich E. gracilis.

If you want to read more such biology news like green-to-red transformation of Euglena gracilis then read these news: How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without The Central Brain, Now Paralysis Can Be Recovered By The Grace Of New Research, Why The Spread of Viruses is Increasing Now.

The spread of viruses is the grand theater of life, viruses are the elusive, enigmatic actors that play a role both captivating and ominous. These microscopic entities, neither truly alive nor entirely inanimate, hold the power to spark pandemics and pave the way for breakthroughs in science. As we embark on this journey to explore the intricate world of virus transmission, we’ll unravel the secrets of their spread, from the microscopic realms to the global stage. It’s a story of tiny agents that have shaken the world in ways both profound and unprecedented. Welcome to the fascinating and often unsettling realm of virus dissemination.

The Interrelation of Spread of Viruses

But how do environmental changes, loss of biodiversity, and the spread of viruses relate to each other? The scientists from Charité — Universitätsmedizin Berlin have unveiled the answer in their recent publication in the eLife journal. Their research reveals that the destruction of tropical rainforests has a detrimental impact on the diversity of mosquito species, and simultaneously, it leads to the proliferation of more resilient mosquito species, which, in turn, results in an increase in the abundance of the viruses they carry. When a particular mosquito species becomes highly populous, the associated viruses can spread rapidly.

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What is Biodiversity

Biodiversity is not merely a scientific concept; it’s the life force that sustains our planet. It’s the irreplaceable treasure chest of nature’s wonders, awaiting discovery and protection. As we learn to appreciate the depth and complexity of biodiversity, we awaken to the responsibility of safeguarding it for generations to come. The symphony of life plays on, and we, as caretakers of this planet, must ensure that every note continues to resonate in harmony.

The Types of Biodiversity

1. Ecosystem Diversity: Biodiversity encompasses the kaleidoscope of ecosystems on Earth. From lush rainforests to arid deserts, each ecosystem hosts its unique cast of characters. Coral reefs teem with colorful marine life, while the tundra shelters hardy Arctic creatures. These ecosystems are the stages upon which life’s drama unfolds.

2. Species Diversity: At the heart of biodiversity lies the staggering variety of species—plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. Think of the bumblebee that pollinates flowers, the giant panda that feasts on bamboo, or the microscopic bacteria that cycle nutrients in soil. Each species has its role in the grand narrative of life.

3. Genetic Diversity: Within each species, genetic diversity weaves a tapestry of adaptation and resilience. It’s the reason why some cheetahs can sprint faster than others or why certain crops thrive in diverse climates. Genetic diversity is the orchestra’s score, allowing life to adapt to changing circumstances.

Why Biodiversity Matters

1. Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity provides us with an array of ecosystem services essential for survival. Forests purify our air, wetlands filter our water, and bees pollinate our crops. These services are the silent engines that drive our planet’s health.

2. Medicine and Innovation: Nature’s treasure trove of chemical compounds and genetic secrets has gifted us with life-saving medicines and technological innovations. From aspirin derived from willow bark to the potential cancer cures found in deep-sea sponges, biodiversity is a wellspring of inspiration for science.

3. Cultural and Spiritual Value: Biodiversity infuses culture and spirituality. It forms the backdrop of art, folklore, and indigenous wisdom. It inspires awe, wonder, and a deep sense of interconnectedness with the natural world.

Threats to Biodiversity

Despite its importance, biodiversity is under siege:

1. Habitat Loss: Urbanization, deforestation, and agriculture have destroyed habitats at an alarming rate, displacing countless species.
2. Climate Change: Rising temperatures and altered weather patterns are disrupting ecosystems and pushing species to their limits.
3. Pollution: Toxins from chemicals, plastics, and pollutants contaminate ecosystems, harming species and their habitats.
4. Overexploitation: Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and logging practices are driving many species to the brink of extinction.

The Perils of Biodiversity Loss

Sadly, biodiversity faces a relentless onslaught of threats:

1. Habitat Destruction: Urbanization, deforestation, and agriculture bulldoze ecosystems, displacing countless species.

2. Climate Change: Rising temperatures alter ecosystems, pushing species to adapt or migrate. Some may not survive.

3. Pollution: Toxins from chemicals and plastics suffocate habitats and harm species.

4. Overexploitation: Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and logging practices drive species towards extinction.

Preserving the Biodiversity

1. Protected Areas: Establishing and maintaining national parks and wildlife reserves offer sanctuaries for endangered species.
2. Conservation Efforts: Conservationists work tirelessly to save threatened species through breeding programs and habitat restoration.
3. Sustainable Practices: Sustainable agriculture, responsible forestry, and eco-friendly fishing practices aim to reduce humanity’s impact on biodiversity.
4. Education and Advocacy: Raising awareness about the importance of biodiversity fosters a sense of responsibility and encourages sustainable practices.

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The Collaboration of The Study

In collaboration with the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), Charité researchers embarked on a study that delves into the effects of rainforest clearance for purposes like coffee or cacao plantations and human settlements on the prevalence and biodiversity of mosquitoes and the viruses they harbor. This interdisciplinary research, which combines virology and biodiversity studies, was spearheaded by Prof. Sandra Junglen, who leads the Ecology and Evolution of Arboviruses research group at Charité’s Institute of Virology.

How They Study The Spread of Viruses

To conduct their study, the team initially captured mosquitoes in the vicinity of Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa, where a wide spectrum of land uses exists, ranging from pristine rainforests to secondary forests, cacao and coffee plantations, and human settlements. Kyra Hermanns, the study’s first author from the Institute of Virology at Charité, elucidates their methodology: “We identified the mosquito species we captured and subjected them to tests for viral infections. Subsequently, we examined how the composition of mosquito species varied across different land use types, the presence of specific viruses, and their prevalence.”

What They Obtained From The Study of Spread of Viruses

In a healthy ecosystem, such as an untouched rainforest, a plethora of viruses exists due to the diverse array of animal species acting as carriers or hosts for these viruses. Viruses are intricately linked to their host species. Consequently, any alterations in the ecosystem directly affect the viruses. Junglen elucidates: “We identified 49 distinct virus species, with the highest diversity of hosts and viruses found in undisturbed or minimally disrupted habitats.” Most of these 49 virus species were relatively scarce in the areas under study. However, nine of them were frequently detected across various habitats, with their prevalence increasing notably in disturbed environments, particularly in human settlements.

The Conclusion of The Study

This implies that the clearance of tropical rainforests results in a decline in mosquito species diversity, thereby altering the composition of host species. Some hardy mosquito species thrive exceptionally well in these cleared areas, bringing along the viruses they carry. The composition of a particular species community consequently has a direct impact on virus prevalence: “When one host species becomes exceedingly abundant, viruses find it easier to spread,” notes the virologist. “All the viruses that exhibited increased prevalence were linked to specific mosquito species. These viruses belong to different families and possess distinct properties. This means that the spread of viruses is not primarily due to genetic relatedness but is influenced by the characteristics of their hosts, particularly mosquito species that can adapt effectively to changing environmental conditions in disrupted habitats.”

Specification of Spread of Viruses

The viruses discovered in the study only infect mosquitoes and are currently not transmissible to humans. Nevertheless, they serve as a valuable model for comprehending how changes in species diversity within a community affect the presence and prevalence of viruses. Junglen emphasizes the significance of biodiversity: “Our study underscores the vital role of biodiversity and highlights that reducing biodiversity facilitates the thriving of specific viruses by increasing the abundance of their hosts.”

Differences Between The Past and Present Study

In the past, such processes were predominantly studied using individual pathogens and their respective hosts. However, this research provides a more comprehensive perspective that can be further explored. The researchers intend to extend their investigations to diverse habitats in other countries in their upcoming work, with the aim of pinpointing the precise factors that influence the diversity of mosquito species in response to land-use changes and the characteristics that viruses require to spread alongside their hosts.”

Paralysis is a complex and life-altering condition that affects millions of individuals worldwide. It manifests in various forms, from localized muscle weakness to complete loss of motor function, and can result from a myriad of causes. But now there is a light of hope from the recent research that paralysis can be recovered in near future.

Part I: Unmasking the Causes of Paralysis

1. Spinal Cord Injuries (SCIs): Among the most common causes of paralysis are traumatic spinal cord injuries. These injuries often result from accidents, falls, or sports-related incidents, and they can lead to partial or complete paralysis depending on the location and severity of the damage.
2. Stroke: Strokes, whether ischemic or hemorrhagic, can disrupt blood flow to the brain, causing brain cell damage and paralysis. Depending on the affected area of the brain, stroke survivors may experience paralysis on one side of their body, known as hemiplegia.
3. Neurological Disorders: Conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Guillain-Barré syndrome can disrupt the normal functioning of the nervous system, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
4. Spinal Cord Diseases: Non-traumatic spinal cord diseases, such as transverse myelitis and spinal cord tumors, can cause paralysis by interfering with the transmission of signals between the brain and the body.
5. Infections and Inflammation: Infections like polio and certain types of encephalitis can lead to muscle weakness and paralysis. Additionally, inflammatory conditions like autoimmune disorders may attack the nervous system, resulting in paralysis.

Part II: The Multifaceted Effects of Paralysis

1. Physical Impact: Paralysis profoundly affects an individual’s physical abilities. Loss of mobility and muscle control can lead to complications such as muscle atrophy, joint contractures, and pressure sores. Individuals with paralysis often require specialized medical care and assistive devices to maintain their health and independence.
2. Emotional Toll: The emotional impact of paralysis is significant. Feelings of grief, anger, and depression are common reactions to the loss of mobility and independence. Coping with the challenges of daily life can be emotionally draining, and mental health support is crucial for individuals with paralysis.
3. Social Challenges: Paralysis can disrupt one’s social life and relationships. Stigmatization and societal barriers can lead to feelings of isolation. Reintegrating into the community and maintaining relationships may require adaptability and support.
4. Financial Strain: The costs associated with paralysis, including medical expenses, assistive devices, and home modifications, can place a substantial financial burden on individuals and their families. Access to affordable healthcare and financial resources is vital.
5. Rehabilitation and Hope: Rehabilitation plays a pivotal role in the lives of those with paralysis. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and assistive technologies can enhance functionality and improve quality of life. With time, determination, and the right support, many individuals with paralysis regain some degree of independence.

Read Also: 22/09/2023- How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without Central Brain

The Research By Which Paralysis Can Be Recovered

Their earlier study in 2018, published in Nature, had already identified a treatment method that stimulated the regrowth of axons (the minuscule fibers responsible for connecting nerve cells and facilitating communication) following spinal cord injuries in rodents. However, despite successfully regenerating axons across severe spinal cord lesions, achieving functional recovery remained a formidable challenge by which paralysis can be recovered.

The Collaborators of Research Team

“In a recent study involving mice, a collaborative team of researchers from UCLA, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, and Harvard University has made a significant breakthrough in the quest to restore functional activity after spinal cord injuries by which paralysis can be recovered. The neuroscientists discovered a vital element in the process: the targeted regeneration of specific neurons back to their natural destinations proved to be effective in promoting recovery, while haphazard regrowth yielded no positive results by which paralysis can be recovered..

The Research Published in Journal Science

In their most recent study, which was published in Science this week, the team aimed to ascertain whether directing the regrowth of axons from specific neuronal subpopulations to their natural destinations could result in meaningful functional restoration after spinal cord injuries in mice. They employed advanced genetic analysis to pinpoint groups of nerve cells that contributed to improved walking ability after partial spinal cord injuries by which paralysis can be recovered..

Topic of The Research

Their findings revealed that merely regenerating axons from these nerve cells across the spinal cord lesion without precise guidance had no impact on functional recovery. However, when the approach was refined to include the use of chemical signals to attract and direct the regrowth of these axons to their natural target region in the lumbar spinal cord, they observed significant improvements in the mice’s ability to walk, even in cases of complete spinal cord injury by which paralysis can be recovered.

But What is axon?

In the intricate world of neuroscience, axons are the unsung heroes, silently transmitting signals throughout the nervous system. These long, slender projections play a pivotal role in enabling us to move, think, and feel. In this article, we embark on a journey to unravel the fascinating world of axons, exploring what they are, how they work, and why they are essential to our existence.

The Anatomy of Axons

Axons are an integral part of neurons, the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system. Neurons consist of three primary components:

1. Cell Body (Soma): The cell body houses the neuron’s nucleus and other vital organelles, serving as the neuron’s control center.
2. Dendrites: These branch-like structures extend from the cell body and receive incoming signals from neighboring neurons.
3. Axon: The axon is a long, thin extension of the neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

How Axons Transmit Information

Axons are the information superhighways of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting signals, or action potentials, from one neuron to another. Here’s how it works:

1. Electrochemical Signaling: Neurons communicate through electrochemical signaling. When a neuron receives a signal via its dendrites, it generates an electrical impulse known as an action potential.
2. Propagation of Action Potentials: The action potential travels along the axon like a wave. This propagation is made possible by the axon’s specialized membrane, which contains ion channels that allow ions to flow in and out, creating an electrical charge.
3. Myelin Sheath: Many axons are insulated by a fatty substance called myelin, which acts like an electrical insulator and speeds up the transmission of action potentials. Myelinated axons appear white, giving rise to the term “white matter” in the brain.
4. Synaptic Transmission: At the end of the axon, it branches into numerous tiny structures called axon terminals. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse, the junction between neurons. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron, transmitting the signal.

Diversity in Axons

Axons come in various shapes and sizes, reflecting their diverse functions within the nervous system. Some axons are incredibly long, spanning from the spinal cord to the toes, while others are short and confined to local circuits. Neurons with longer axons tend to relay signals over longer distances.

Axons can also differ in their degree of myelination. While some axons are entirely covered in myelin, others have periodic gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier. This nodal arrangement allows for a faster and more energy-efficient propagation of action potentials.

The Importance of Axons

The significance of axons cannot be overstated. They are the conduits through which our thoughts are transmitted, our muscles are controlled, and our senses are perceived. The intricate network of axons in the brain and spinal cord forms the basis for all our cognitive and motor functions.

Axons are also the targets of various neurological diseases and injuries. Conditions like multiple sclerosis, where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, can disrupt the transmission of signals along axons. Spinal cord injuries can sever axons, leading to loss of sensation and motor function.

Insights of The Research

Dr. Michael Sofroniew, a professor of neurobiology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and a senior author of the study, commented, “Our study offers crucial insights into the complexities of axon regeneration and the prerequisites for achieving meaningful neurological recovery after spinal cord injuries. It underscores the importance not only of regenerating axons across lesions but also actively guiding them to reach their natural target regions to attain substantial neurological restoration” and by which paralysis can be recovered.

Application of This Research

The researchers posit that understanding how to re-establish the connections of specific neuronal subpopulations to their natural destinations holds great promise for developing therapies aimed at restoring neurological functions in larger animals and eventually in humans. However, they acknowledge the complexity of promoting regeneration over longer distances in non-rodent species, which may require intricate spatial and temporal strategies. Nevertheless, they conclude that applying the principles outlined in their research “will provide a blueprint for achieving meaningful repair of the injured spinal cord and may expedite recovery after other types of central nervous system injuries and diseases” and by which paralysis can be recovered.

The Research Team

The research team included scientists from various institutions, including the NeuroX Institute, School of Life Sciences at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), the Department of Neurosurgery at Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne (UNIL), the Wyss Center for Bio and Neuroengineering, the Department of Clinical Neuroscience at Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne, the Departments of Bioengineering, Chemistry, and Biochemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles, the Bertarelli Platform for Gene Therapy at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, the Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, the M. Kirby Neurobiology Center at the Department of Neurology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, and the Department of Neurobiology at the David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles.

Financial Support of This Research

This research received financial support from various organizations, including the Defitech Foundation, Wings for Life, Riders4Riders, Wyss Center for Bio and Neuroengineering, Swiss National Science Foundation, Morton Cure Paralysis Foundation, ALARME Foundation, and the Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Foundation, among others. The researchers also acknowledged the resources.

A recent investigation reveals that mechanical harm to the cell membrane could trigger cellular senescence in human cells. The delicate membrane enveloping our cells measures a mere 5 nanometers in thickness, equivalent to just 1/20th of a soap bubble’s width. Physiological processes such as muscle contraction and tissue injury readily subject cells to damage. To counter such challenges, cells possess mechanisms capable of partially repairing membrane damage.

Date:	February 22, 2024
Source:	Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) Graduate University
Summary:	Scientists have found that injury to the cell membrane accelerates cellular senescence, also known as cell aging.

If you want to read more such biology news then click these news: How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without The Central Brain, Now Paralysis Can Be Recovered By The Grace Of New Research, Why The Spread of Viruses is Increasing Now.

Cell Aging or Cellular Senescence Definition:

Cancerous cells exhibit unrestricted division. Conversely, non-cancerous normal cells have a finite capacity for division, typically around 50 times, after which division ceases irreversibly, leading the cells into a state referred to as cellular senescence.

Senescent cells remain metabolically active. However, unlike young and healthy cells, they secrete a variety of proteins that enhance immune responses in both nearby tissues and distant organs.

Other Causes of Cell Aging :

The most well-established trigger for cellular senescence is recurrent cell division. Various other stresses can also prompt cellular senescence in experimental conditions, including DNA damage, activation of oncogenes, and alterations in epigenetic patterns.

The enduring belief within the research community was that diverse stresses lead to cellular senescence primarily through the initiation of the DNA damage response.

Effects of Cell Aging:

This mechanism can bring about both advantageous and disadvantageous alterations in our body, such as hastening wound healing, promoting cancer, and contributing to aging.

Over the past decade, several investigations have documented the presence of senescent cells in animals, including humans, and have demonstrated that eliminating these cells can revitalize bodily functions in experimental animals.

Nevertheless, the cause of cell senescence in the human body continues to be a subject of debate.

Difference Between Older and Newer Thoughts:

Previously, it was understood that mechanical damage to the cell membrane would result in two basic cellular responses: either recovery or cell death. However, this study revealed a previously unrecognized third possibility: cellular senescence.

Level of Damage:

The slight damage to the cell membrane is readily fixed, enabling uninterrupted cell division.

However, moderate damage to the cell membrane transforms the cells into senescent cells several days later, despite apparent successful membrane resealing.

Severe cell membrane damage leads to cell death.

Cellular Senescence Defining A Path Forward:

Yet, the researchers revealed that cellular senescence induced by cell membrane damage operates through an alternative pathway involving calcium ions and the tumor suppressor gene p53. These discoveries could aid in the development of strategies aimed at promoting healthy aging in the future.

Thoughts of The Researchers:

The determining factor for cell destiny lies in the degree of damage and the subsequent influx of calcium ions.
“When I embarked on this project, my goal was simply to comprehend the repair processes of the injured cell membrane,” reminisces Professor Keiko Kono, leader of the Membranology unit and senior investigator of this study, which engaged numerous members from the unit, such as Kojiro Suda, Yohsuke Moriyama, Nurhanani Razali, and collaborators. “Surprisingly, we found that cell membrane damage, in a way, alters cell destiny.”

This study unveils a novel understanding of how cell membrane damage can drive cellular senescence through distinct mechanisms involving calcium ion influx and the activation of tumor suppressor genes. These findings underscore the intricate relationship between cellular integrity and aging processes.

Jellyfish are captivating creatures of the sea, known for their graceful, undulating movements and delicate, translucent bodies. Yet, beneath their seemingly simple exterior lies a complex mystery: they lack a central brain, despite that Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain, yet they exhibit behaviors that suggest a capacity to learn from past experiences.

Scientists, in a groundbreaking discovery published on September 22 in the journal Current Biology, have revealed that Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain, specifically the Caribbean box jellyfish (Tripedalia cystophora), can acquire knowledge from past experiences, much like humans, mice, and flies. This finding challenges the conventional belief that sophisticated learning necessitates a centralized brain and provides insight into the evolutionary origins of learning and memory.

Anatomy of The Jellyfish

Jellyfish belong to the phylum Cnidaria and come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Their anatomy is relatively simple, consisting of a gelatinous, umbrella-shaped bell and trailing tentacles armed with stinging cells called nematocysts. These stinging cells are used for hunting prey and for defense against potential predators. However, what sets jellyfish apart from other creatures is their absence of a central nervous system, a brain, or a complex network of neurons found in most other animals.

Despite their small size, these seemingly uncomplicated jellyfish possess a complex visual system comprising 24 eyes embedded within their bell-shaped bodies. In their habitat, which consists of mangrove swamps, these creatures rely on their vision to navigate through murky waters and avoid underwater tree roots while hunting for prey. The researchers demonstrated that these jellyfish can develop the ability to evade obstacles through associative learning, a process wherein organisms establish mental connections between sensory stimuli and their corresponding behaviors.

Decoding the Learning Abilities To Know How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without The Central Brain

For a long time, scientists believed that jellyfish relied solely on instinctual, reflexive behaviors and lacked the capacity to learn or adapt to their environment. After all, how could an organism with no central processing unit possibly display learning behaviors? Then how Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain?

However, recent studies have challenged this notion. Researchers have discovered that jellyfish exhibit behaviors that can be interpreted as learning from past experiences. One of the most remarkable examples of this is the Cassiopea jellyfish, also known as the “upside-down jellyfish.”

Cassiopea jellyfish are known to associate certain tactile stimuli with positive or negative experiences. In laboratory experiments, they have been observed to preferentially pulsate and swim towards surfaces that offer a soft, sandy texture while avoiding surfaces that are too rough or uncomfortable. This behavior implies a capacity for environmental learning and adaptation.

The Role of a Simple Nervous System

Although jellyfish lack a central brain, they do possess a simple nerve net. This nerve net is a diffuse network of interconnected neurons that spans their entire body, allowing for basic sensory perception and signal transmission. While this neural network is far less complex than the brains of vertebrates, it appears to be sufficient for certain types of learning.

One hypothesis is that jellyfish rely on a form of distributed intelligence, where information is processed collectively by the nerve net, rather than centralized in a single brain. This distributed processing allows them to adapt to their surroundings and make decisions based on sensory input that’s why Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain.

Environmental Learning

Jellyfish spend their lives drifting through the ocean, encountering a variety of environmental factors, from water currents and temperature changes to food availability and potential threats. Their ability to learn from these experiences is crucial for survival and reproductive success.

For example, if a jellyfish repeatedly encounters a specific water temperature associated with an abundance of prey, it may develop a preference for that temperature range. Likewise, if it encounters a predator or a potentially harmful environment, it may learn to avoid those conditions by this ability Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain.

Implications for Science and Technology

The discovery of learning abilities in jellyfish challenges our understanding of intelligence and cognition. While these creatures may not possess the same cognitive complexity as humans or some other animals, they demonstrate that rudimentary forms of learning can occur without a centralized brain.

Read Also: 21/09/2023- Now Paralysis Can Be Recovered By The Grace Of New Research.

Experiment: How Jellyfish Can Remember Everything Without Central Brain

Jan Bielecki from Kiel University, Germany, the first author of the study, emphasizes the significance of leveraging the animal’s natural behaviors to effectively teach them new skills. He states that this approach allows the animal to reach its full learning potential.

To conduct their experiments, the research team set up a circular tank with gray and white stripes to mimic the jellyfish’s natural environment, with gray stripes representing distant mangrove roots. During the 7.5-minute observation period, they noticed that initially, the jellyfish swam close to the seemingly distant gray stripes, frequently colliding with them. However, by the end of the experiment, the jellyfish had increased its average distance from the tank wall by approximately 50%, quadrupled the number of successful maneuvers to avoid collisions, and reduced its contact with the wall by half. These findings suggest that jellyfish can learn from their experiences, particularly through visual and mechanical stimuli.

Anders Garm, the senior author from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, highlights the importance of studying simpler nervous systems in jellyfish to gain insights into complex structures and behaviors.

Aim of The Researchers After The Discovery how Jellyfish can remember everything without the central brain

The researchers then aimed to uncover the underlying mechanism of associative learning in jellyfish by isolating the visual sensory centers known as rhopalia, each of which contains six eyes and generates pacemaker signals that control the jellyfish’s pulsing motion, which increases in frequency when the animal maneuvers around obstacles.

When the researchers exposed the stationary rhopalium to moving gray bars to simulate the jellyfish’s approach to objects, it did not respond to light gray bars, interpreting them as distant. However, after training the rhopalium with weak electric stimulation in response to the approaching bars, it began generating signals to dodge obstacles when exposed to light gray bars.

These electric stimulations mimicked the mechanical stimuli of collisions, indicating that both visual and mechanical cues are necessary for associative learning in jellyfish, with the rhopalium serving as a crucial learning center.

Future Plan of The Research Team

The research team’s future plans include delving into the cellular interactions of jellyfish nervous systems to unravel the intricacies of memory formation. They also aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of how the bell’s mechanical sensor contributes to the animal’s associative learning.

Anders Garm points out the astonishing speed at which these animals learn, which rivals the pace of more advanced creatures. This suggests that even the simplest nervous systems possess the capacity for advanced learning, potentially representing a fundamental cellular mechanism that emerged at the early stages of nervous system evolution.

This research could have implications for fields such as robotics and artificial intelligence. Understanding how jellyfish process and respond to sensory input without a central brain could inspire new approaches to designing more adaptive and efficient robotic systems.

Jellyfish, with their mesmerizing appearance and seemingly simple biology, continue to surprise us with their capacity to learn from past experiences despite the absence of a central brain. The study of their unique form of intelligence opens new doors in our understanding of the diversity of cognitive processes in the animal kingdom.

Why fasting is not always good? While fasting, the body undergoes a shift in its energy source and utilization, transitioning from ingested calories to utilizing its own fat reserves. Yet, beyond this alteration in fuel sources, there remains a limited understanding of how the body reacts to extended periods of fasting and the potential health consequences, whether advantageous or detrimental. Emerging methodologies enabling the measurement of numerous proteins circulating in our blood offer a chance to comprehensively investigate the molecular adjustments to fasting in humans with precision and thoroughness.

Date:	March 1, 2024
Source:	Queen Mary University of London
Summary:	“Study identifies multi-organ response to seven days without food.”

Fasting is not always good because recent discoveries indicate that prolonged fasting induces significant systemic changes throughout the body, affecting multiple organs. These findings not only suggest health benefits extending beyond mere weight loss but also indicate that any potentially significant health-related alterations seem to manifest only after a fasting period of three days or longer.

If you want to read recent biology news then click here: Cell Membrane Damage Promotes Cellular Senescence.

Experiment:

In the experiment of fasting is not always good, a group of researchers monitored 12 healthy volunteers who participated in a seven-day water-only fasting regimen. Throughout the fasting period, the volunteers were closely observed on a daily basis to document changes in the levels of approximately 3,000 proteins in their blood, both before, during, and after the fast. By pinpointing the proteins involved in the body’s response, the researchers were able to anticipate potential health outcomes of prolonged fasting by incorporating genetic data from extensive studies.

Result:

As anticipated, in the experiment of fasting is not always good, the researchers noted a transition in the body’s energy sources, shifting from glucose to stored body fat, within the initial two to three days of fasting. On average, the volunteers experienced a reduction of 5.7 kg in both fat and lean mass. Upon resuming eating after three days of fasting, the weight loss was sustained, with the loss of lean mass nearly completely reversed, while the reduction in fat mass persisted.

Thoughts of The Researchers:

The experiment of fasting is not always good, researchers have delivered their opinion:

Claudia Langenberg, Director of Queen Mary’s Precision Health University Research Institute (PHURI), remarked:

“For the first time, we have the ability to observe molecular-level changes occurring throughout the body during fasting. When conducted safely, fasting proves to be an effective strategy for weight loss. Diets incorporating fasting, such as intermittent fasting, claim to offer health benefits beyond weight loss. Our findings indeed support the notion of health benefits associated with fasting beyond mere weight loss. However, these benefits were discernible only after a prolonged period of three days of complete caloric restriction, which is later than previously anticipated.”

Maik Pietzner, Health Data Chair of PHURI and co-lead of the Computational Medicine Group at the Berlin Institute of Health at Charite, added:

“Our research has laid the groundwork for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the age-old practice of fasting for certain conditions. While fasting may hold therapeutic potential for certain ailments, it may not always be a feasible option for patients dealing with poor health. We hope that our discoveries can offer insights into the reasons behind the efficacy of fasting in specific scenarios, thereby guiding the development of treatments that are more accessible to patients.”

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